Legal social state and civil society. Origin of civil society Work program of the academic discipline

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1 B A K A L A V R I A T F.I. Sharkov, A.N. Averin Fundamentals of a Social State Recommended by the UMO Council for Education in Management as a textbook for students in higher educational institutions in the field of preparation “Public and Municipal Management” (qualification (bachelor’s degree) KNORUS MOSCOW 2016

2 UDC 316.3/.4(075.8) BBK 60.56ya73 Ш26 Reviewers: A.M. Babich, prof. RANEPA, Doctor of Economics. Sciences, N.A. Volgin, first deputy general director All-Russian Center for Living Standards, RANEPA, hon. scientist of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Economics. sciences, prof. Sharkov F.I. Ш26 Fundamentals of a social state: textbook / F.I. Sharkov, A.N. Averin. M.: KNORUS, p. (Bachelor's degree). ISBN DOI / Domestic and foreign experience in the formation and development of a social state is revealed. The essence, models, goals, principles, functions, legal and economic basis of the social state are shown. Particular attention is paid to the consideration of state and non-state social policy, its subjects and objects, management of the social sphere in a social state. Complies with Federal State Educational Standard VO 3+. For students studying in academic and applied bachelor's programs. It may be useful to students studying in specialist and master's educational programs, students of advanced training and professional retraining programs, as well as anyone interested in the problems of the formation and development of a social state, social policy and the social sphere. UDC 316.3/.4(075.8) BBK 60.56ya73 Sharkov Felix Izosimovich Averin Alexander Nikolaevich foundations of a social state Certificate of conformity ROSS RU.AG51.N03820 from the Publishing House Signed for printing Format 60 90/16. Headset "PetersburgC". Offset printing. Conditional oven l. 19.5. Academic ed. l. 17.3. Circulation 500 copies. LLC Publishing House KnoRus, Moscow, st. Kedrova, 14, bldg. 2. Tel.: Printed at PJSC "T8 Publishing Technologies", Moscow, Volgogradsky Prospekt, 42, bldg. 5. Tel.: Sharkov F.I., Averin A.N., 2016 ISBN KnoRus Publishing House LLC, 2016

3 Contents Preface... 6 Introduction... 7 Section I THE ESSENCE OF THE SOCIAL STATE Chapter 1. Theoretical and methodological foundations of the social state 1.1. The state as a social institution The concept of a social state The social state and civil society Chapter 2. The formation and development of the social state in foreign countries ah 2.1. Social orientation of states in European countries Development of the welfare state in the CIS countries Chapter 3. Models, goals, principles and functions of the welfare state 3.1. Models of the social state Goals and priorities of the social state Principles of the social state Functions of the social state Chapter 4. Legal and economic basis of the social state 4.1. Legal basis for the functioning of the social state Constitutional basis of the social state... 68

4 4.3. The economic basis for the creation and development of a social state The relationship between the social state and the social market economy Section II SOCIAL POLICY AND THE SOCIAL SPHERE IN THE SOCIAL STATE Chapter 5. Social policy in the social state 5.1. Contents of social policy of a social state Models of social policy of a social state Goals and means of social policy of a social state Functions of social policy of a social state Principles of social policy of a social state Priority directions of social policy of a social state Interrelation of social, family, demographic and migration policies of a social state Chapter 6. Objects and subjects social policy of the welfare state 6.1. Objects of social policy of the welfare state Federal authorities state authorities subjects of social policy of a social state Regional bodies of state power subjects of social policy of a social state Communication of subjects and objects of social policy of a social state Chapter 7. Municipal social policy in a social state 7.1. Subjects of municipal social policy in a social state Foreign experience in solving social issues authorities local government

5 Contents 5 Chapter 8. Non-state social policy in the welfare state 8.1. Public associations as subjects of social policy in a social state Socially oriented non-profit organizations are subjects of social policy in a social state Social policy in an organization in a social state Social entrepreneurship in a social state Social partnership in a social state Chapter 9. Management of the social sphere of society in a social state 9.1. Features of managing the social sphere of society in a social state The focus of socionomics on the study of the social state, social policy and the social sphere of society Conclusion Basic terms and concepts Literature Authors: A.N. Averin preface, paragraphs 4.2, 4.4; chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, F.I. Sharkov introduction, paragraphs 4.1, 4.3, chapters 1, 2, 3, 9, conclusion.

6 Preface Subject of study academic discipline“Fundamentals of a social state” is a social state, social policy and management of the social sphere of society. The textbook will introduce students to modern concepts of the welfare state and basic concepts of social structure; theoretical, regulatory and legal foundations of social policy and features of social policy Russian state. Students need to gain knowledge about social processes and phenomena, social standards regulating the priority areas of social policy designed to satisfy human needs for a decent life and allowing the realization of the personal potential of a citizen in the professional sphere. In addition, students must master the ability to assess the quality of social projects, methods of analyzing social processes and phenomena, conceptual apparatus, methods of independent work with normative legal acts and literature. Federal educational standards for higher professional education include the academic discipline “Fundamentals of the Social State” in the basic part of the humanitarian, social and economic cycle in the following areas of bachelor’s training: Social work, Service, Tourism, Hospitality. The federal educational standard of higher professional education for master's degrees in the field of preparation Social work provides for the study of the academic discipline “Conceptual foundations of a modern social state and social law” in the basic (general professional part) of the professional cycle. The textbook consists of two sections, nine chapters, 33 paragraphs, a list of recommended literature, definitions of terms and concepts. The first section examines the essence of the welfare state, the second section discusses the implementation of state and non-state social policies, management of the social sphere in the welfare state. The paragraphs indicate keywords, formulate questions and tasks.

7 Introduction Russia has declared itself a social state. The inclusion of this norm in the Constitution of the Russian Federation was preceded by the work of many scientists and specialists who proposed various models government system. In May 1993, scientists from the Academy of Labor and social relations made recommendations to the Constitutional Assembly, proposing the formula “Russia is a social state.” This proposal was supported by deputies, trade union delegates, scientists Russian Academy sciences, specialists and experts of bodies executive branch and the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation and was included in the draft constitution as its 7th article, and after the referendum it became a constitutional norm of the Basic Law of our country. Legal norm The Constitution of the Russian Federation states that Russian Federation is a social state whose policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure decent life and free development of man, serves as the basis for the implementation of active, consistent and purposeful actions to form a truly social state in our country. However, just declaring Russia a social state does not automatically lead to real changes on the path to building a social state. The formation of a social state in post-Soviet Russia is at the very beginning of theoretical and practical development. Scientific research related to these problems is not yet sufficient. Scientific and practical conferences and seminars, round tables held by the Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation and the Academy of Labor and Social Relations, round tables jointly with heads of government bodies, trade unions, Unions of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs

8 8 The introduction of various levels by leading scientists from academic institutions and universities of the country gave a new impetus to scientific research into the problems of the social state, and deprived the foundation of various attempts to revise the constitutional principle of the structure of the Russian state. The formation, development and strengthening of a social state requires theoretical development of the conceptual foundations for the formation of a holistic, comprehensive program of measures for their implementation and consistent, targeted work of all branches and levels of government and local government, the actions of public associations and other subjects of civil society implementing social programs. It is necessary to systematically and comprehensively inform citizens about basic concepts social state, social policy, the activities of relevant authorities, the entire set of their social rights and obligations. The category “social state” itself requires further development; it is necessary to develop legal framework, mechanisms, practice of functioning to approve the constitutional foundations. This form of government is designed to ensure the most complete rights and vital interests of all categories Russian citizens. Based on an understanding of the major changes that are taking place in our country in the field of social relations, this textbook makes generalizations that will help solve the problems of the formation and development of the legal and scientific framework, mechanisms, culture and practice of functioning of the social state, providing it with personnel of the new formation, and readers will be helped to draw their own conclusions. A modern social state is characterized not only by the enshrinement of the corresponding principle in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, but also by the presence of an effective social policy, an effective social market economy, providing employment and decent wages; developed social insurance; support for family, motherhood and childhood, care for the elderly, youth, and much more. In modern conditions, the Russian population is especially concerned about problems such as low wages and arrears in its payment, further rise in prices and tariffs, falling living standards, poor protection of veterans and women, a real threat of being left without work, inaccessibility for most young people of good vocational education, quality medical care, difficulties in obtaining housing, lack of proper conditions for development of the spiritual sphere, acceptable recreational conditions and a number of other social problems. This state of the social sphere

9 Introduction 9 ry on modern stage development requires activation of social policy. A modern social state must combine the principles and functions of the rule of law, liberal and political democracy, harmonization of the interests of all subjects of public life, including various elements of market relations and, in general, the need to establish the social nature of the state, which together will ultimately make it possible to transform states, even those that are not yet rich enough, into truly social states that not only proclaim their intentions, but also those that actually implement their main functions in practice. A state that has declared itself social must: rely on the rule of law and provide, first of all, guarantees of respect for human rights and freedoms; create the opportunity for citizens to freely realize their labor and intellectual potential so that on this basis they can ensure material well-being for themselves and their family; implement, during any systemic and structural transformations, a strong and consistent social policy focused on the maximum possible investment in people, on achieving high living standards for the majority of citizens, on targeted support for the most vulnerable layers and groups of the population; implement measures to ensure the strengthening of the family of the main unit of society, the spiritual, cultural, moral development of citizens, careful attitude to the heritage of ancestors and the continuity of generations, the preservation of original national and historical traditions; create favorable conditions for the real participation of the main productive forces of society in the development and social examination of management decisions at all levels of government. By observing the freedoms and rights of citizens, the social state simultaneously expresses the goal inherent in society, regulates the methods that society considers acceptable, and creates the means for realizing the goal, presented in the form of a system of constantly developing productive forces (including the person himself) and a system corresponding to them industrial and social relations. The social state determines priorities in the implementation of established principles based on the degree of severity of the most important socio-economic and political problems, taking into account the current historical situation and significant contradictions, resolution

10 10 The introduction of which will help streamline the relationship between the state and civil society. The textbook is intended to help students, listeners, and graduate students studying these problems, to acquaint readers with the features, essence, principles, goals, methods of operation of the social state and provide practical help those who are concerned about the current situation and who ensure the implementation of the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which proclaimed the Russian Federation a social state.

11 Conclusion The welfare state is the main instrument that ensures social interaction between state institutions and civil society. It forms the legal and legislative prerequisites for the most effective economic development society in order to maximally satisfy the constantly growing material and spiritual needs and ensures maximum correspondence between the natural rights and responsibilities of members of society and their material remuneration. Thus, the welfare state creates the most favorable social climate in society. A social state is one that pursues a strong social policy, which is ensured by the development of a social market economy aimed at stable provision of a high standard of living and employment of the population, the real implementation of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the creation of timely and accessible systems of education, health care, culture, social provision and social services, supporting the poor and low-income segments of the population. The main practical measures to implement the principles of the social state include labor protection and health of people, the establishment of a guaranteed minimum size wages, ensuring state support for family, motherhood, paternity and childhood, disabled people and elderly citizens, development of social service organizations, socially oriented non-profit organizations, establishment of state pensions, benefits and other guarantees social protection. A modern state becomes truly social when a balance of forces of political action is established, with equal influence of the main social forces in society. The division of functions and spheres of activity between the state and civil society is the most important characteristic of a democratic

12 296 Conclusion of the socio-political system. Civil society acts as a collective representative of various private and public associations that have their own sources of existence, independent of the state. Summarizing various approaches to understanding the content of the concept of “civil society”, we can distinguish its three main meanings: civil society is the most important criterion of a civilized society; civil society is a free political association, a community of equal citizens based on law and justice; civil society constitutes an area of ​​interaction and implementation of individual, corporate and group goals. Civil society appears as a social, economic and cultural space in which free individuals interact, realizing private interests and making individual choices. A social state, on the contrary, is a space of strictly regulated relationships between politically organized subjects. At the same time, the welfare state and civil society are closely interconnected and complement each other. In a social state, solving social problems is a priority in all spheres of people’s lives. The main goal of the welfare state is to maximize the satisfaction of the constantly growing material and spiritual needs of members of society, to consistently increase the standard of living of the population and reduce social inequality, to ensure universal availability of basic social benefits, especially quality education, medical and social services. Achieving this goal is facilitated by increasing the efficiency of the process of creating vital goods, which allows society to receive a high national income, a condition for ensuring the satisfaction of material needs. The social state rejects any forms of achieving goals that violate the rights of other citizens, communities, and states. The idea of ​​a modern Russian social state with a focus on human development and the creation of decent living conditions is based on the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, which emphasizes that all people are born free and equal in dignity, and Every person is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration, without distinction of any kind. Economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to social security, to work and free choice of work, to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being, to education and to participate in cultural life

13 Conclusion 297, etc., noted in Art. 6 of the Declaration are the basis of the system of rights and guarantees that proclaim Russia as a social state. The practical activities of subjects of social policy to establish the constitutional principles of a social state are aimed at realizing the following fundamental rights and freedoms of a citizen: the right to human freedom; the right to free realization of labor and intellectual potential so that every citizen can ensure material well-being for himself and his family; guarantees in the state's implementation of a strong, consistent social policy, focused on the maximum possible investment “in people”, the achievement of high living standards by the majority of citizens, targeted support for the most vulnerable layers and groups of the population; guarantees of creating favorable conditions for the real participation of the main productive forces of society in the development and social examination of management decisions at all levels of government; rights and guarantees that recognize and implement the system of social partnership as the main mechanism for achieving public consent, a balance of interests of the employee, employer, and state in regulating socio-economic and labor relations; guarantees under which any business entity, any owner must have a certain social burden; rights and guarantees focused on strengthening the family, on the spiritual, cultural, moral development of citizens and, above all, youth; to respect the heritage of ancestors and the continuity of generations, preserving the identity of national and historical traditions.

14 Literature Averin A.N. Social policy and management training: textbook. allowance. M.: Dashkov i K, Averin A.N. Social policy. Theory and practice. M.: Publishing house RAGS, Interaction between the state and civil society in modern Russia. M.: Veche, Volgin N.A., Gritsenko N.N., Sharkov F.I. Social state: textbook. M.: Dashkov i K, Gvishiani D.M. Selected works on philosophy, sociology and system analysis / ed. Yu.S. Popkova, V.N. Sadovsky, A.A. Soitova. M.: Kanon+; Rehabilitation, Gritsenko N.N. [and others] Fundamentals of the social state: textbook / N.N. Gritsenko, N.A. Volgin, Yu.N. Popov, F.I. Sharkov, A.A. Shulus. M.: Publishing house ATiSO, Gritsenko N.N., Volgin N.A., Okhotsky E.V., Popov Yu.N., Sharkov F.I. Fundamentals of the welfare state: a textbook for universities. M.: ATiSO Publishing House, Gritsenko N.N., Sharkov F.I. Fundamentals of the welfare state: a textbook for universities. M.: Social relations, Denisova I.P., Klinovenko L.R. Social policy: textbook. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, Kamenetsky V.A., Patrikeev V.P. Fundamentals of social economics. M.: Economics, Concept of the social state of the Russian Federation: collection. M.: Publishing house ATiSO, Smirnov S.N., Sidorina T.Yu. Social policy: textbook. allowance. M.: Publishing House of the State University Higher School of Economics, Social policy in municipalities: textbook / edited. ed. N.A. Volgina, V.K. Egorova, S.V. Kalashnikov. M.: Alfa-Press, 2006.

15 Literature 311 Social policy in modern Russia: reforms and everyday life / ed. P. Romanov and E. Yarskaya-Smirnova. M.: Option; TsSPGI, Social policy: textbook / edited by. ed. N.A. Volgina. M.: Exam, Social policy: encyclopedia / ed. N.A. Volgina, T.S. Sulimova. M.: Alfa-Press, Social State: a short dictionary-reference book / ed. coll.: N.N. Gritsenko (manager), G.A. Nikolaev (deputy manager), F.I. Sharkov (deputy manager), E.F. Gubsky, A.A. Kubarev, V.G. Smolkov. M.: Publishing house ATiSO, Sharkov F.I. Fundamentals of regional social policy: textbook. allowance. M.: Publishing house ATiSO, Sharkov F.I. Fundamentals of the welfare state: textbook. M.: Dashkov i K, Kholostova E.I. Social policy and social work: textbook. allowance. M.: Dashkov i K, 2006.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

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Lecture notes

B1.B.4. Foundations of the welfare state

(index and name of the discipline according to the curriculum)

Direction of training 030500. 62 “Jurisprudence”

SECTION 1. FORMATION OF AN IDEASOCIAL STATE

1. The relevance of studying the essence of the social state.

2. Concept, features, functions of the welfare state

3. Formation of the theory of the social state

4. Social policy of the state.

1. The relevance of studying the essence of the social state.

In the early 90s. XX century In Russia, the problems of the social state began to gradually enter scientific circulation. The theoretical development of the problems of the social state in domestic science is currently just beginning. Therefore, the subject boundaries of research are still unclear.

The political aspects of the phenomenon of the welfare state have not yet been sufficiently studied. Among the authors actively researching this problem we should name: M.P. Bocharova, V.D. Dzodzieva, V.D. Roica, V.A. Torlopova, V.P. Miletsky, S.V. Kalashnikova, V.P. Pugacheva, A.I. Solovyova, A.F. Khramtsova and others.

Social problems occupy a key place in the theory of the welfare state. Issues of the specifics and content of social relations of social policy are given an important place in the works of such scientists as: V.S. Afanasyev, L.V. Afanasyeva, N.A. Volgin, N.N. Gritsenko, F.I. Sharkov, R.G. Gostev, S.F. Nikitin, Yu. Volkov, A.V. Gurleev et al.

The development of a wide range of problems related to the study of the theory and practice of the social state, the identification and demonstration of the features and problems of its formation in modern Russia acquire undoubted scientific relevance.

According to N.S. Vetrova, “modern social policy is a vast and ramified area of ​​government activity, including the formation and regulation of social insurance and welfare systems; programs in the field of health care, education, housing construction, assistance to cities and regions affected by depression; regulation of relations between labor and capital, as well as civil rights policies.”

An analysis of ideas about the social state allows us to imagine the following periodization of its development: the first stage (from the 70s of the 19th century to the 30s of the 20th century) – socialist; the second stage (from the 30s of the twentieth century to the end of the 40s) – a legal social state; third stage (from the late 40s to the 60s of the twentieth century) - state social services; the fourth stage (from the late 50s to the mid-80s) – the welfare state; fifth stage (from the beginning of the 80s to the mid-90s) – destruction and crisis of the welfare state; sixth stage (from the mid-90s of the twentieth century to the present) – a liberal social state.

Today, many researchers interpret the concept of “welfare state” differently. One of the first definitions of the concept of “welfare state” is found in encyclopedic dictionary and expresses “the ability of the state to implement modern social policy: to take care of the employment of the population, human rights, to create health care and social security systems, to support the poor.”

A more meaningful interpretation of the nature of the social state is suggested by V.P. Pugachev and A.I. Soloviev. In their opinion, this is “a state that strives to provide every citizen with decent living conditions, social security, participation in production management, and ideally, approximately equal life chances, opportunities for personal self-realization in society.” “The activities of such a state are aimed at the common good, the establishment of social justice in society. It smooths out property and other social inequalities, helps the weak and disadvantaged, takes care of providing everyone with work or another source of livelihood, maintaining peace in society, and creating a living environment favorable to humans.”

According to V.D. Dzodzieva, a social state is “a state that guarantees each of its citizens decent living conditions and strives to create approximately equal life chances in the field of education, employment, health care and self-realization of the individual in general; it is a state that implements social justice in society.”

Ex-speaker State Duma G. Seleznev gives following definition: “A social state is a type of state in which public policy The main priority is the social well-being of each person and the entire society.” Scientific development of the essence and concept of a social state continues.

2. Concept, features, functions of the welfare state

The word “social” in Latin means “general”, “public”, that is, relating to the life of people in society. Therefore, “social” in the broadest sense of the word is any state, being a product of social development. However, in this case, the “social state” is understood as a state that has special qualities and functions. The existence and activity of a welfare state is closely connected with such social phenomena as democracy, civil society, the rule of law, freedom and equality, and human rights.

Taking into account the above, we can conclude that the conditions for the existence of a social state and its characteristic features are:

– Democratic organization of state power.

– High moral level of citizens and, above all, – officials states.

– Powerful economic potential, allowing for measures to redistribute income without significantly infringing on the position of owners.

– Socially oriented structure of the economy, which is manifested in the existence of various forms of ownership with a significant share of state ownership in the necessary areas of the economy.

– Legal development of the state, the presence of the qualities of a rule-of-law state.

– The existence of civil society, in the hands of which the state acts as an instrument for carrying out socially oriented policies.

– A clearly expressed social orientation of the state policy, which is manifested in the development of various social programs and the priority of their implementation.

– The state has such goals as establishing the common good, establishing social justice in society, providing each citizen with: a) decent living conditions; b) social security; c) equal starting opportunities for personal self-realization.

– Availability of developed social legislation (legislation on social protection of the population, for example the Code social laws, as is the case in Germany).

– Consolidation of the “welfare state” formula in the country’s constitution (this was first done in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949).

Talking about functions social state, the following circumstances should be kept in mind:

a) it has all the traditional functions determined by its nature as a state as such;

c) within the framework of the general social function, specific areas of activity of the social state can be identified - specific functions. The latter, in particular, include: support for socially vulnerable categories of the population; occupational safety and health; support for family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood; smoothing social inequality by redistributing income between different social strata through taxation, the state budget, and special social programs; encouraging charitable activities (in particular, by providing tax benefits business structures carrying out charitable activities); financing and support of fundamental scientific research And cultural programs; combating unemployment, ensuring employment of the population, paying unemployment benefits; finding a balance between a free market economy and the state’s influence on its development in order to ensure a decent life for all citizens; participation in the implementation of interstate environmental, cultural and social programs, solving universal human problems; concern for maintaining peace in society.

It is believed that among the basic laws, the idea of ​​a social state was first reflected in the Weimar Constitution of 1919. It is often called the first social constitution. Such constitutions after the First World War began to replace the previous instrumental constitutions, which contained mainly, if not exclusively, articles on the organs of the state, as well as on political and personal (but not socio-economic) rights of man and citizen. The Weimar Constitution stated that private property should “at the same time” serve the common good (Article 158), that a person must be ensured a decent existence, it was said about workers’ councils in enterprises, and there was a chapter on education.

After the Second World War, the first constitutions that had a clearly expressed social character were the Constitutions of France 1946 (not valid except for the preamble, which contains provisions on socio-economic rights) and Italy 1947, which proclaimed Italy a republic based on labor (Art. .1). It should also be noted that the social constitutions in force before and after the Second World War were all Soviet constitutions, starting with the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918. Later Soviet constitutions, starting in 1936, proclaimed a wide range of socio-economic rights of citizens. These basic laws were based on the postulates of class struggle, the elimination of private property and “exploiters”, the “dictatorship of the proletariat”, and the state of totalitarian socialism (especially in its practical activities) was essentially the antipode of the welfare state.

The phrase “social state” first appeared in the Constitution (Basic Law) of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. Later it was included in the Constitutions of France 1958, Spain 1978, Romania 1991, Slovenia 1991, Ukraine 1996, Colombia 1991 ., Peru 1993, Ecuador 1998, Venezuela 1999, a number of other countries. There is this term in Art. 7 of the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation. But in many of the newest European constitutions (for example, Poland 1997, Finland 1999, Switzerland 1999) it is not there. The content of this term, as a rule, is not disclosed. Usually it is only stated that a given state is social (however, further articles usually name a more or less complete scope of socio-economic rights inherent in modern conditions, and talk about some measures of targeted social protection of certain groups of the population). In the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the content of the term “social state” is revealed through goal-setting: “The Russian Federation is a social state, the policy of which is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of people” (Article 7).

3. Formation of the theory of the social state

The idea of ​​social statehood was formed at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. (that is, later the idea of ​​the rule of law) as a result of objective socio-economic processes occurring in the life of bourgeois society, when two of its most important principles came into conflict - the principle of freedom and the principle of equality. Theoretically, two approaches to the relationship between these principles have emerged. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Benjamin Constant, John Locke and others defended the theory of individual human freedom, charging the state with the primary duty of protecting this freedom from any interference, including the interference of the state itself. At the same time, they understood that such freedom would ultimately lead to inequality, but they considered freedom to be the highest value.

Another approach is personified by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who, without denying the importance of individual freedom, believed that everything should be subordinated to the principle of equality, which is the task of the state to ensure.

The principle of individual freedom, which liberated the initiative and initiative of people, contributed to the development of private entrepreneurship and a market economy, thus had an economic basis during the period of consolidation of the economic power of bourgeois states. However, by the end of the 19th century. As wealth developed and accumulated, the property stratification of bourgeois society began to occur, its polarization, fraught with a social explosion. And in this situation, the principle of individual freedom lost its relevance and gave way to the principle of social equality, requiring the state to move from the role of a “night watchman” to active intervention in the socio-economic sphere. It is in such a historical and political situation that the concept of a social state and an understanding of its special qualities and functions begin to take shape.

The teachings of the English economist J. Keynes were of great importance for the theory and practice of the social state, under the influence of whose views the concept of a welfare state was formed, based on the increase in the social function of the state.
It should be noted that undoubtedly the catalyst for the development of the idea of ​​a social state and its implementation in the West was the emergence of the Soviet state, which constantly declared in its Constitutions and others legislative acts social orientation of policy. And, although the political theory and declarations of socialism were in conflict with the realities of the absence of democracy, civil society, the rule of law and private property as the economic basis of these institutions, real achievements in the social policy of socialist states cannot be denied. Of course, in the above-mentioned socio-economic conditions, the socially oriented activities of the socialist state could only have a paternalistic (paternalistic) character associated with the establishment of wretched equality.

A truly social state is possible only in conditions of democracy and civil society and must be legal in the modern meaning of this characteristic. Currently, a legal state must be social, and a social state cannot but be legal.

In addition, it should be taken into account that the state’s implementation of a socially oriented policy is a difficult process, a kind of political balancing act due to the need to take into account contradictory, almost mutually exclusive factors. The social state must constantly establish a difficult balance between the freedom of a market economy and the need to influence distribution processes in order to achieve social justice and smooth out social inequality.

4. Social policy of the state

State social policy is the actions of the state in the social sphere, pursuing certain goals, correlated with specific historical circumstances, supported by the necessary organizational and propaganda efforts, financial resources and designed for certain milestone social results.

Social policy is not so much a system of measures and activities as a system of relationships and interactions between social groups, social strata of society, at the center of which is their main ultimate goal - a person, his well-being, social protection and social development, livelihoods and social security of the population in in general.

The object and subject of this policy coincide with the main elements, blocks and structures included in a large single complex - the social and labor sphere (SLS) - a system of interconnected components and parts, including:

– sectors of the social sphere (education, healthcare, culture, sports, tourism, housing and communal services, etc.;

– labor market, employment, unemployment;

– social partnership;

– social protection;

– pay and labor protection;

– social insurance;

– pension system, etc.

Social policy and the social and labor sphere are not passive. Requiring significant financial resources on self-launch and development, they at the same time actively influence the economy, economic growth, GDP dynamics, and the trajectory of society’s movement towards progress. Without effective employment, the organization of a system of powerful labor incentives, education systems, health care, culture, etc. it is impossible to develop production, increase the volume of goods and services, and other micro- and macroeconomic indicators, which requires an appropriate attitude to the social and labor sphere and social policy on the part of the state, its legislative and executive bodies, employers, entrepreneurs and owners.

The main blocks of the STS are:

– social sphere, i.e. branches of the socio-cultural complex (education, healthcare, culture, etc.);

– labor market, employment services, retraining of personnel (including the unemployed);

– the sphere of motivation for productive labor (organization of wages, stabilization of the standard of living of the population, etc.).

– groups of relations and components that arise in the process of reproduction of the labor force and providing conditions for the interaction of the employee with the means and objects of labor: – the system of social protection of the population, the system of social partnership, the social insurance system, the pension system, labor protection, etc.

Types of social policy

The types of states of society as an integral system underlie the typification of social policy in a large plan and allow us to distinguish its following types:

1) social policy in socially stable societies (social formations);

2) social policy in societies in systemic crises (in revolutionary situations);

3) social policy in societies in a state of deformation (permanent crises of the social system);

4) social policy in societies emerging from a systemic crisis through radical (revolutionary) reforms, i.e. social policy of the transition period.

Social formations are such states (bands) of social development when social and economic structures are reproduced on their own, socially stable basis and retain their qualitative certainty. These are periods of relatively “smooth” development.

Features of social policy in socially sustainable societies are:

– a stable (established and habitual for the majority of the population) order of relationships between the most important social groups (and classes);

– the formation of significant layers more or less satisfied with their social position (often called the “middle class”);

– balance of general class interests of the ruling class and the interests of its individual parts (subordination of the interests of parts to general class interests);

– establishing and maintaining a system of peaceful social coexistence between the ruling and subordinate classes;

– a weakening of the feeling of social injustice, a decrease in the level of mass prevalence of this feeling in society, a decrease in the influence of protest, reformist and especially revolutionary ideologies, the weakening and decline of the labor movement, social movements, protest and liberation movements.

A crisis of a social system (systemic crisis) is a state of society when it becomes necessary to make a historical choice of a new version of the future and, as a rule, a new social structure (a new type of power). It is no longer possible to develop in the old, traditional way, because the existing authorities are unable to set new realistic goals and organize effective social actions to achieve them, and the “lower classes” do not want to continue to put up with the existing forms of life. The discrepancy between social forms of life and the new level of needs and opportunities is not only felt, but must be overcome.

Features of social policy in a situation of systemic crisis are:

– activation of public consciousness in many social groups, designation of a real diversity of opinions and socio-psychological types, ideological diversity;

– an increase in critical attitude towards existing social orders, alienation in relation to them;

– identification of the fundamental contradictions of the existing social structure, awareness, on the one hand, of the need to overcome them, and, on the other, the inability of the existing state to cope with this historical task;

– formulation of social group interests and demands, formation (or updating, linking to topical historical tasks) of social group ideologies, formation of social group representative subjects (organizations, movements, parties, political unions and coalitions, etc.);

– putting forward political and social programs, specific demands for a radical improvement in the socio-economic situation of classes and numerous social strata, i.e. essentially demanding significant political and social reforms.

Overcoming a systemic crisis always occurs in the form of a revolution, the essence of which is a change in the type of power and a radical change in the social structure. Revolution matures differently in deformed societies and in social formations, but if it began and took place, then its fundamental tasks are more or less similar. These tasks boil down to the need to carry out a system of revolutionary reforms covering all the most important spheres of social life and establishing a qualitatively new, viable social structure in each of these spheres.

A transition period is a historical period during which there is a transition from a previous stable social system to a qualitatively new stable social system. The system of revolutionary reforms in the social sphere in ensuring the basic living conditions of the population as a whole and its most important social groups is the essence of the social policy of the transition period. Social policy of the transition period is a social policy corresponding to the transitional states of society. Its main feature is that it is formed in conditions of historical coincidence of processes of radical renewal of both society and the state.

The social policy of the transition period reflects the intensification of the struggle for change in all key conditions formation of social status. The struggle over the degree of exploitation and access to political power, for the redistribution of property, for maintaining or lowering the standard of living and the level of social security, for working conditions. The outcome of this struggle is determined by the relationship between political strength and political organization of different social groups (classes). The type and direction of state action are so significant in resolving basic social issues that the struggle for state power becomes a central point of influence on social policy.

Functions of social policy.

First One of its main functions is to ensure the social sustainability of society and the social security of society. The social structure must have the properties of stability and self-renewal (dynamism), otherwise the given society is destroyed, declines, and ceases to exist. The social structure must be so stable as to withstand both internal and external dangers of its destruction and at the same time bear within itself the prospect and potential for qualitative renewal through reforms and revolutions.

All currently existing societies and the modern world order are based on the forced social donation of some social groups and countries in favor of other social groups and countries (i.e., exploitation).

Second One of the main functions of social policy is to ensure the political stability of power. Such stability is achieved in different ways in societies of different types and in different specific historical ones, but the essence always comes down to such a distribution of the real participation of social groups (and classes) in political decisions, which would maintain the dominant influence in the power of the same ruling class, Otherwise In this case, the class type of power changes and revolutionary transformations become inevitable. Among these transformations, ensuring political stability again becomes a priority, but for a new government.

Third The main function of social policy is to ensure such a distribution of power in the economy (property) that would be recognized by the majority as fair and not requiring a struggle for redistribution.

Fourth The main function of social policy is to establish a system of distribution of economic resources and economic effect that more or less suits the vast majority of the population. The distribution of economic resources decisively determines the material living conditions of people in society, the ability to solve problems of different social groups, investments and their structure, the level and differentiation of income, the total size and structure of annual social expenditures, the conditions and amounts of social assistance and support.

Fifth The main function of social policy is to provide society and the state with the necessary and sufficient level of environmental safety.

Sixth The main function of social policy is to provide society and the state with the necessary and sufficient level of social security for both the population as a whole and each of its social groups.

SECTION 2. FOREIGN EXPERIENCE IN CREATING SOCIALLY-ORIENTED STATES

1. Totalitarian model of the welfare state in Nazi Germany (1933-1945)

2. The formation and development of the welfare state in the USA in the twentieth century.

3. Modern models of the welfare state in Western Europe and Asia

1. Totalitarian model of the “welfare state”in Nazi Germany (1933-1945)

The Reich Ministry of Labor, headed by Franz Seldte, was responsible for the social sphere in the Third Reich.
Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf: “The National Socialist entrepreneur must know that the prosperity of the national economy will ensure both his well-being and the well-being of the people. National Socialist employer and worker must work together for the good of the nation. Class prejudices and contradictions must be peacefully resolved to the general satisfaction in the chambers of estates and in the central parliament.”

Hitler attached great importance to the creation of a SOCIALLY HOMOGENEOUS SOCIETY: “We want to educate the German people in such a way that they get rid of insane class arrogance, dark faith in class order, false belief that only mental work. We need to make sure that our people value any work, so that they believe that any work ennobles, so that they realize that it is a shame to do nothing for their people, not to contribute in any way to strengthening and increasing the wealth of the nation. Those desired changes towards the improvement of the German economy and society, which could not be brought about by theories, declarations, wishes, must now follow as a result of the participation of many millions of workers in the creative work, and we must organize them.”

After coming to power, Hitler ordered generous funding for social programs: until the end of 1934 alone, the government invested about 5 billion marks on various employment programs - three times more than it invested in industry during the same period. On February 1, 1933, Hitler announced that unemployment would be eliminated in four years, and he kept his promise: when the Nazis came to power, there were 25.9 million unemployed in Germany (in the USA - 35.3 million, in France - 14.1 million ), in 1934 in Germany - 13.5 million (in the USA - 30.6 million, in France - 13.8 million), in 1935 in Germany - 10.3 million (in the USA - 28.4 million , in France - 14.5 million), in 1936 in Germany - 7.4 million (in the USA - 23.9 million, in France - 10.4 million), in 1937 in Germany - 4.1 million (in the USA - 20 million, in France - 7.4 million), in 1938 in Germany - 1.9 million (in the USA - 26.4 million, in France - 7.8 million). Judging by these dynamics, while in other countries unemployment was still HIGH, in Germany it PRACTICALLY DISAPPEARED. IN GERMANY THE CRISIS WAS OVERCOME FASTER THAN ANYONE EXPECTED. People started talking abroad about the “German economic miracle” already in 1936: it was in this year that industrial production exceeded the pre-war level. First, the situation improved in industry, and then in the agricultural sector.

The slogan put forward by Goebbels of a “general attack on unemployment” produced an unprecedented public outcry and had the strongest impact on the German people. Extensive and generously funded public works, among which the construction of highways occupied a special place. On February 11, 1933, Hitler said: “If previously the standard of living of a people was measured by the length of railways, then in the future it will be determined by the length of highways.” Hitler ordered the construction of roads to be financed from unemployment insurance funds, and other sources were also involved. The corresponding orders were given, and work began to boil. In June 1933, Hitler appointed the engineer-artist Fritz Then as “General Inspector of Roads.” 600 thousand unemployed were employed under the highway construction program. Another 200 thousand people were employed in the road construction industry.

Under Hitler, the “people's car” program was adopted. On Hitler's instructions, Ley created the “Society for Preparation for the Creation of the German People's Car (Volkswagens),” the leadership of which was entrusted to W. Lafferents. Factories were built near Wolfsburg, where the production of Volkswagens began. Numerous bridges along the highways, on Hitler’s orders, were built either in the form of Roman aqueducts, or in the form of medieval fortifications, or in the style of modernism. All this was done so that travelers could enjoy the beauty of the landscape and perceive the beauties of nature. Therefore, special importance was attached to the location and architecture of numerous bridges. Therefore, the German autobahn network was considered the most beautiful in the world. German autobahns consisted of two lines of durable road surface, 7.5 m wide. Between them there was a three-meter strip intended for green spaces. Each line was divided into two canvases, to the right of each of them there was a parking strip.

The fundamental document that determined the development of the social sphere was the “law on the organization of national labor” of January 20, 1934. This law, which proclaimed the equality of rights of employers and workers, retained its significance during the war. The law talked about labor planning, according to which the owner of the enterprise was accountable to the state arbiter of labor, and through him to the state for the sake of the general welfare of the nation. This social welfare-oriented interpretation of private property WAS NOT KNOWN in “democratic” Germany in the 1920s. The law placed the “leader of the enterprise” at the center of the organization of the production process. The interests of the labor collective, which was called the “team” in the law, were represented by a trust council with advisory functions; its most important function was to overcome social conflicts in order to fully realize the national community. The “team” swore allegiance to the “leader of the enterprise” and pledged to obey unquestioningly. In accordance with the principle of “Führership,” the main responsibility for the organization and conditions of production fell on the “leader of the enterprise.” The Nazis believed that the entrepreneur had to behave differently than during the years of class struggle: first of all, he had to wisely use his economic and socio-political power for the benefit of the German community. The workers were not required to have any special activity - only loyal behavior. The Nazi leadership morally encouraged especially active and enterprising “enterprise leaders” by awarding them the honorary title “innovator of labor.”

The activities of the “enterprise leader” in the social sphere were controlled by the “imperial labor arbitration”, which had regional authorities and was subordinate to the Ministry of Labor. The task of the arbitration was to resolve controversial issues and formation general rules organization of the production process. Arbitration was a kind of leading socio-political authority, the main task of which was to monitor the legality and surreal need for the mass dismissal of workers, to monitor the maintenance of an acceptable minimum in working conditions, gradually transforming the latter towards improvement; to issue and approve new wage tariff schemes. The arbitration itself was a structural part of the Ministry of Labor, which was the main institution regulating labor relations.

The second most important agency (after arbitration) for regulating labor relations was the state “administration for the operational organization of works,” which financed public works and other employment programs. With the proclamation of the four-year plan in 1936, state intervention in labor relations intensified: it was in 1936 that direct state control over the movement of wages and the labor market began. A prerequisite for expanding control over the structure of employment was the introduction work records and compiling databases of all employees.

The head of DAF Ley sought to expand the scope of DAF's competence as much as possible. With their help, Lei sincerely wanted to create a conflict-free and friendly national community. The main components of his credo were: the development of the welfare state, improving the opportunities for social growth for every person, and achieving social harmony by strengthening the unity of the people. As a true follower of Hitler, Ley sought to end political pluralism and class struggle; he was a convinced Nazi, who perceived party doctrine almost as a religion and treated Hitler as a prophet. Hitler trusted Ley completely.
DAF management often put pressure on entrepreneurs, demanding higher wages. The DAF demanded longer holidays and better working conditions. At the initiative of the DAF, a decree was adopted according to which, from December 5, 1933, workers were exempt from taxes if their salary did not reach 183 marks.

Before the war, he constantly expanded the scope of his competencies, and gradually the DAF turned into a super department, an entire bureaucratic state, the main instrument for establishing “brown collectivism.” DAF's achievements in the social sphere have been very significant. He really raised the social status of the worker. In the pre-war years, the DAF was heavily involved in organizing material assistance; important role propaganda played a role in the work, with the help of which the DAF tried to increase the sense of dignity of workers, create better living conditions for them and eliminate the feeling among the proletariat of being left alone with their problems as pariahs of society. The organization and control of vocational training meant that the DAF received into its hands an important means of influencing the social growth of workers (Ley considered this direction as one of the priorities). Of course, in addition to caring for workers, the DAF also performed certain protective functions: its ranks included the so-called “worker squads” - Lei’s ideological militia at enterprises, as well as trust councils, courts of honor and legal advisers of the DAF.

The activity of DAF in some areas produced positive results: for example, the “Beauty of Work” program led to easier working conditions at enterprises. At the DAF meeting in Magdeburg in 1937, Ley said: “I will try to instill in the people a working ethos that will help them to see something beautiful and sublime in work. I will strive to ensure that our plants and factories become temples of labor, I will strive to make workers the most respected class in Germany.” The Nazis showed exceptional ingenuity in the cultural education of workers and in the aestheticization of labor. At the same time, the rationalization of labor went hand in hand with functionalist aesthetics. It is interesting to note that the Bolsheviks, on the contrary, did almost nothing in this direction, relying on the fact that improvement in working conditions would come by itself. The Germans sought to do the OPPOSITE.

The motto of the German department “The Beauty of Work” was the words: “German workdays should become beautiful” - in this way they wanted the workers to regain their self-esteem, a sense of the significance of their work. On January 30, 1934, within the framework of the DAF, the KDF was created, in which there was a department “Aesthetics of Labor”, headed by Speer. In this department, Speer and his colleagues worked with entrepreneurs, and they refurbished factory buildings, placed flower pots, washed windows and expanded their area, and established canteens in factories and factories, which had previously been a rarity. The department designed simple, functional factory tableware, furniture for workers’ canteens (which began to be produced in large quantities), and obliged entrepreneurs to consult with specialists on issues of ventilation and lighting of workplaces.

The task of the department “Beauty of Work” included not only concern for a favorable mental atmosphere in production, but also about cleanliness and colors in the workplace, about natural and artificial lighting. All this was intended to increase the self-esteem and self-esteem of workers. Although the agency had only an advisory status, if necessary, it could put pressure on the entrepreneur; in particular, the department was organizing a competition for the title of “National Socialist Exemplary Enterprise” (this title was awarded to the KDF for one year). Having concluded an agreement with the Imperial Chamber of Fine Arts, the Beauty of Labor department involved artists in the design of the buildings being built. production premises. The department was actively involved in the living conditions of workers in production - hygiene (showers or washstands), nutrition (quality of products, prices and design of canteens or work buffets), as well as living conditions in those industries where people had to long time work away from home. The Beauty of Labor agency proposed to improve the living conditions of construction and road workers (employed on the highway) through the creation and use of collapsible houses. These and similar projects were carried out by the entire DAF institute - the Institute of Scientific Organization of Labor.

In general, the department’s activities were extensive and varied: decorating village streets and research in the field of functional industrial aesthetics; improvement of workplaces in mines and river navigation; production of functional and comfortable furniture for design bureaus and good plumbing and carpentry tools and putting things in order in factory yards. There were constant calls from the leadership of DAF to place flowers in the factory workshops and to build outdoor swimming pools and sports grounds for workers at the enterprises. In 1935, the campaign “good lighting of workplaces - good job”, in which improving occupational hygiene was associated with increasing labor productivity, in which entrepreneurs were also interested. This was followed by campaigns: “clean people in a clean enterprise”, “clean air in the workplace”, “hot food in the enterprise”. In 1935, the “Beauty of Labor” department noted 12 thousand enterprises where working conditions had significantly improved; Entrepreneurs spent 100 million Reichsmarks for these purposes.

All these activities had clear social goals, which boiled down to the elimination of social tension. At industrial enterprises, showers, locker rooms, neat toilets, and swimming pools were made for workers. In addition to the practical significance of the events, they tried to instill in the workers the impression of party concern for the common man.

The “Beauty of Labor” department actively used the concept of aestheticization of labor and technical aestheticization in its policy: functional industrial buildings, functional steel structures, streamlined forms of racing cars, submarines and airplanes were cultivated. The garden city movement, rationalization, architectural modernism, the cult of technology, and the ideology of efficiency were aimed at creating an industrial society without class struggle, which was the goal of the Nazis.

In 1936, the department “Beauty of Labor” estimated that 70 thousand enterprises were audited, tens of thousands of kitchens and canteens, recreation rooms, swimming pools and sports grounds were built in factories for a total amount of 1 billion Reichsmarks.

“Civil society in the structure of the welfare state

and as an instrument of state management"

Question No. 1. Theory and origins of civil society

Civil society theory

Civil society in the works of foreign scientists has been considered and described since ancient times.

Even the great ancient philosopher Aristotle said that man is a social being. This means that it is quite clear that a person, especially a modern person, does not think of himself outside of society. Human society itself arose in ancient times and it preceded the state. Subsequently, society developed in close and inextricable unity with the state. Consequently, civil society emerged at a certain stage in the historical development of Western civilization. But one thing is clear - we can talk about civil society only from the time the citizen appears as an independent member of society, endowed with a set of inalienable rights and freedoms. But at the same time he bears responsibility to society for all his actions.

The modern successes of Western countries are based on the development and activation of civil society. A high level of economy, democracy, and social security of a person are associated with high activity of citizens. And this, in turn, is only possible in a civil society.

The idea of ​​civil society arose in the mid-17th century. The term “civil society” was first used by G. Leibniz (1646 - 1716), a German philosopher, scientist and public figure. Significant contributions to the development of the problems of civil society were made by T. Hobbes, J. Locke, and C. Montesquieu.

The concept of civil society in the works of these thinkers was based on the ideas of natural law and social contract.

Man, as an individual, strives for freedom and the realization of his natural rights. But as a social being, a person cannot live outside of society and especially outside the state, and, therefore, the realization of his natural rights is hampered by the state and the authorities. Civil society implies the voluntary transfer by individuals to the state of their rights, on the one hand, and, on the other, the limitation of state power in the interests of citizens exercising their freedoms. The main condition for the effectiveness of civil society is the voluntariness and reciprocity of such an agreement between citizens and the state.

The origins of theoretical developments of problems of civil society go back to ancient philosophy.

Among the first thinkers to “notice” civil society as an independent substance is Plato. He was the first to notice elements of civil society within the framework of his general theory of the “ideal state”. Sharply criticizing state power, Plato created the doctrine of an “ideal human society.” The doctrine of virtues, wisdom, courage, and an enlightened emotional state was the basis of the concept of “civil society.” In the general theory of civil society, Plato was the first to make a very important conclusion that, in addition to the state-organized one, there are other forms of social life.

Aristotle more than once emphasized that man is not only a social being, but to a greater extent a political one, and therefore the state is a natural product of the development of a society of political citizens and, in connection with this, analyzed the life of free citizens in other spheres - economic, marriage and family, spiritual, moral ... He came to the conclusion that state intervention in these areas is simply not required until a certain level of development of productive forces and production relations is achieved. Aristotle, speaking about the essence of civil society, especially emphasized the role of property in such a society, noting that whoever has property also has virtue, and before distributing anything, it is necessary to produce it. Aristotle was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the middle class. The middle class, according to Aristotle, is the basis of the stability of any society. So, Aristotle considered property and the presence of a middle class as the main signs of civil society.

The most noticeable mark in the development of the theory of civil society was left by the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli. He viewed the state as the highest manifestation of the human spirit. A person sees the purpose, meaning, and happiness of life in serving the state. However, at the same time, Machiavelli says that the state should not abuse it and not violate the property and personal rights of its subjects, so as not to arouse their hatred against itself. Machiavelli's discussions about morality, work, love and other spheres of private life show that he separated the state and non-state spheres of society. Here we are talking about the signs of civil society. Machiavelli already clearly distinguishes between the state and civil society. He wrote that political power and political activity are immoral. He considers work, family, love, and satisfaction of personal needs as signs of civil society. He formulated his main conclusion as follows: besides the state, there is also something independent, living according to its own laws, not subject to the state in everything. This is civil society.

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes first introduced the concept of “civil society” into scientific circulation and proclaimed its primacy over the state. Hobbes emphasizes the duality of civil society:

1) the state is not connected with civil laws, customs, and law. It is, as it were, separated from civil society;

2) the state subjugates everything and everyone through the concept of civil society. Hobbes distinguishes between the concepts of “state” and “civil society”.

J. Locke, the founder of classical liberalism, actively using the concept of civil society, proclaims to a certain extent its primacy over the state. Therefore, the state arises only when there is a need for it in society. Consequently, the state is not an eternal attribute of society. Locke considers property to be the basis of society, including civil society. According to it, political power is understood as the right of people to create laws to regulate and preserve property. Therefore, the state and political power are not an eternal attribute of society, but arise only at a certain stage in the development of civil society, when members of society have a need for it. He emphasizes the main dominant of civil society - no exception can be made for a single person in civil society from the laws of this society.

C. Montesquieu considers civil society as a result of historical development, as the fourth stage of human history after the state of nature, family, and heroic time. In his opinion, civil society is the enmity of people with each other. To neutralize this hostility, civil society is being transformed into a state. Montesquieu distinguishes three types of laws in civil society: civil, state, political. Civil laws regulate relations and principles of civil society. These are property relations, voluntary associations of citizens. State laws regulate mainly the political rights and freedoms of these same citizens. Montesquieu directly points out that civil society is the most important guarantee of society against arbitrariness and dictatorship on the part of power structures.

J.J. Rousseau shows civil society as a society transformed into a state through a social contract. By proclaiming popular sovereignty, he substantiates the people’s right to overthrow absolutism and alienate themselves from the power of a democratically elected government.

I. Kant significantly deepened the idea of ​​​​civil society and identified the main way of forming civil society - the combination of the freedom of everyone with the freedom of others. According to Kant, civil society is based on the following a priori principles:

1. Freedom of a member of society as a person;

2. His equality with others as a subject;

3. Independence of a member of society as a citizen.

Hegel enriches the understanding of civil society with fundamentally new provisions - civil society acts as a system of individuals who, with the help of labor, satisfy their own needs and the needs of others. Hegel sees the foundation of civil society as follows:

1. Private property;

2. Community of interests;

3. Universal equality of citizens;

4. Protection of a person from accidents.

Unlike others, Hegel views civil society and the state as independent institutions. Civil society takes place not within, but alongside the state, Hegel noted, and it depends on the state and is to some extent absorbed by it. The general will of citizens is represented in the state, and civil society is represented as a sphere for the implementation of the special, private interests of individual individuals. The sphere of the state is government power, administration, and the sphere of civil society is police and official power. Hegel formulated his main conclusion as follows: if the state, in order to maintain the rule of law, invades the boundaries of civil society or interferes in the activities of the judiciary, then it seems to act against civil society. The state and civil society are a contradictory unity. They can only exist on the basis of many classes, i.e. developed social structure of society. Hegel views civil society and the state as independent institutions. The state represents the general will of citizens, while civil society is the sphere of special, private interests of individual individuals. According to Hegel, civil society and the state can exist only on the basis of the developed structure of society.

Marx considered civil society as the sphere of material and economic life of people and civil society is a social organization developing directly from production and circulation, a set of economic and production relations corresponding to a certain level of productive forces. According to Marx, civil society is primary in relation to the state. The relationship between civil society and the state manifests itself as a relationship between individual freedom and public power. And the differences between civil society and the state are most obvious in the political life of society. If the state is included in the structure and life of society as the most important element of its political organization, then civil society is not included in its structure. According to Marx, there is an overt contradiction between the state and civil society - this is the representation of civil society in government bodies. Civil society, endowing itself with political functions, essentially denies itself and denies itself and does not realize itself. Revolutionary changes occur precisely in civil society - the displacement of private property. In general, Marx essentially denied the place of civil society in the new political regime - the dictatorship of the proletariat, which is what happened in Soviet reality. Civil society here was replaced by an imaginary “state of the whole people.”

Antonio Gramsci, the Marxist theorist, viewed civil society in a threefold historical context:

1. When it is destroyed by the state (pre-revolutionary Russia);

2. When the state is its “external” form (Italian state);

3. When there is a balanced relationship between the state and civil society (developed Western countries).

He imagined civil society as a society that in the future would absorb the state and develop into self-government of the masses. Gramsci noted that civil society and the state are two levels of politics and the meaning of civil society is most fully expressed by political parties and other social movements.

Various aspects of modern ideas about civil society are presented and substantiated in the works of modern scientists.

In domestic social science, the theory, especially the practice of civil society for a long time was a taboo topic for research. People first started talking about it in the 60s during the Khrushchev Thaw. But only from the late 80s the concept of “civil society” gradually entered scientific circulation in Russian social science.

Origins of civil society

In modern political science, society is viewed as a combination of civil society and the state, as the main institution of political power. Civil society acts as a link between the citizen and the state. It is where people's daily political life takes place. Political power, in order to strengthen itself, creates a political system and its basis - the state.

The history of the development of the state clearly identifies two trends:

The state is democratic, legal;

Which way the state will develop depends largely on the level of development of civil society. Let's try to understand the essence of civil society, the history of its emergence and the role that civil society plays in the political life of the country.

Civil society is a non-state part of socio-political life; it is a set of social relations, formal and informal structures that provide the conditions for human political activity, the satisfaction and implementation of various needs and interests of the individual and social groups and associations.

Among scientists there is no consensus on the origin of civil society:

1. With the emergence of humanity;

2. The emergence of the state;

3. In a bourgeois society with the values ​​of liberal democracy.

Some see the beginnings of society already at the primitive communal stage of development, when family and clan communities begin to form.

Others believe that with the advent of private property and the exploiting classes, civil society creates the state as an organ of the ruling class.

Still others believe that civil society emerged as a protest of citizens against the omnipotence of the state, as a desire of people to realize their rights and freedoms.

Historically, civil society is formed much earlier than the state, at the dawn of humanity. Researchers highlight the following stages of formation civil society:

First– the beginnings of civil society are formed through the emergence of the simplest, few and unstable associations of people for the joint acquisition of food, construction of housing, protection from animals and enemies;

Second– with the emergence of the production sphere of life, associations of people become more numerous and functionally diverse. At this stage, a community is formed and civil society essentially coincides with the community;

Third– at a certain stage of development of the human community, a state arises. Consequently, the scope of civil society is narrowed to the extent that part of the members of society - slaves, serfs - are deprived of civil rights. A weak civil society at this stage is absorbed by the state. The state becomes the sole arbiter of the destinies of all citizens;

Fourth– as social contradictions intensify, the formation of civil society accelerates. The formation of various, especially protective structures of civil society is intensifying. At this stage, civil society seeks legislative regulation and regulation of relations between it and the state. Civil society forces the state to create certain guarantees for the most disadvantaged part of the population. Civil society establishes a consensus in society based on basic social values: freedoms, political rights, economic independence of a person;

Fifth– is associated with the establishment of capitalist production relations and, most importantly, with the elimination of non-economic dependence on the owners of the means of production and the introduction of legal equality. All this expands the scope of civil society to the scale of the entire state.

The rudiments of civil society are formed through the emergence of the simplest, few unstable associations of people for the joint acquisition of food, construction of housing, production of household items and clothing, protection from enemies and wild animals.

Over time, in connection with the development of the production sphere of life, associations of people become more numerous, functionally diverse, and stable. Communities are formed, and people understand that within the community they can ensure that their needs are met, and that working for the benefit of the community gives them the right to participate in solving community affairs. Civil society essentially coincides with the community.

At a certain stage of its development, civil society creates a state to protect its interests, maintains the state apparatus, and controls it to a certain extent, which the state actively resists.

While civil society remains in an amorphous state, the state, gaining strength, to a certain extent absorbs it and becomes the sole arbiter of the destinies of all citizens. (“Kings can do anything... and sometimes they decide the fate of the whole earth...”).

But precisely because civil society is immature, the state itself is not stable.

Over time, civil society strives for legislative regulation and regulation of relations between it and the state, forces the state to create certain guarantees for the most disadvantaged, to establish and maintain some consensus in society based on basic social values: freedoms, rights, economic independence of a person.

In conditions of developed capitalist relations, civil society again, as at the dawn of its development, expands its scope to the scale of the entire society, to the scale of the entire country.

Modern civil society began to take shape as a result of bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe. Its real functioning began with the adoption of the Bills of Rights in England and the USA and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen in France.

Civil society does not arise immediately; certain conditions are necessary for its formation and formation. The practice of Western countries and general theory civil society allow us to identify the following most universal or objective conditions for the formation of civil society.

1. Civil society creates the specific society itself in two ways - through states or in spite of them. Through the state - this is through certain laws, the formation of democratic structures, and strict adherence by the state to generally accepted norms and procedures. Contrary to the state - by creating mass socio-political movements and the media.

2. Possession of specific property in its various forms by each member of civil society and the right to dispose of it at his own discretion. According to Western researchers of this problem, the presence of property is considered as a basic condition for individual freedom in civil society. However, there is a different opinion of scientists on this issue. So Russian political scientist D.P. Zerkin has completely different views regarding private property as a basic value of civil society. He writes that private property divides people, makes them antagonists, and therefore all existing forms of property should be included in the basis of Russian civil society. D.P. Zerkin believes that the basis of civil society is the entire set of economic relations, and the criterion for its functioning is the system of various social interests generated by it.

3. An important condition for the formation of civil society is the presence in society of a developed, diverse social structure. It reflects the richness and diversity of interests of representatives of various groups and layers of citizens of the state.

4. A high level of social, intellectual, psychological development of the individual, her internal freedom and the ability to be completely independent.

Question No. 2. Concept, characteristics and structure of civil society

In modern political science, taking into account the findings of foreign researchers, the following definition is given: “Civil society is a human community, including voluntarily formed primary non-state structures in the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of society; it is a set of non-state relations and the sphere of manifestation of free individuals, organizations and associations of citizens.”

Civil society and the state complement each other and depend on one another. Without a mature civil society, it is not possible to build a legal democratic state, since it is conscious free citizens who are capable of creating the most rational forms of human coexistence. Thus, if civil society acts as a strong mediating link between a free individual and the centralized state will, then the state is called upon to counteract disintegration, chaos, crisis, decline and provide conditions for the realization of the rights and freedoms of an autonomous individual. The division of civil society and the state is quite arbitrary; this is done in order to understand the mechanisms of social life, the degree of freedom and non-freedom of individuals, and the level of political development.

Civil society exists and functions in contradictory unity with the state. So, in a democratic regime, it interacts with the state, and in a totalitarian regime, it stands in passive or active opposition to the state.

In modern understanding, civil society is:

1. The totality of non-political relations of people, social communities located outside government agencies and fixing private and group interests.

2. Social interaction of the population of a given territory in the economic and social areas on the principles of self-regulation, self-government, based on personal equality and the norms of traditional community life. State regulation operates here only in order to control antisocial actions.

3. The highest modern stage and form of human community, including as structural elements voluntarily formed primary communities of people: families, public organizations, cooperations, associations, professional, creative, sports associations, excluding state and political structures.

Political scientists identify the following historical types of civil society :

Social formations (estate, social group, class);

Society as the totality of citizens of a country;

Global community of citizens.

V economic sphere - the following structural elements: non-state enterprises and associations, cooperatives, collective farms. Economic attributes of civil society - natural integration, competition, free market relations;

V socially in the th sphere - these are families, public organizations and movements, non-state media, self-government bodies, a mechanism for the formation and expression of public opinion and interests in a civilized form without violence;

V political sphere - political parties, socio-political organizations, clubs created as necessary. It is a struggle to uphold democratic principles, traditions and procedures;

V spiritual sphere is the presence of freedom of thought, conscience, and speech. This is independence and independence from state and political structures of the activities of creative and other associations of citizens in the spiritual sphere.

Thus, civil society is a civilized, active and full-fledged citizen; the formation of civil society is associated with the formation of the idea of ​​individual freedom, the intrinsic value of each individual; the emergence of civil society led to the distinction between human rights and the rights of a citizen, human rights are ensured by civil society, and the rights of a citizen are ensured by the state; in civil society the unity of politics and religion, politics and ideology is abolished and the bifurcation of public and private, society and state, law and morality is established.

The formation of civil society means the formation of a community of people in which the optimal balance of political and non-political principles is achieved, mutual equality of rights, freedoms and responsibilities of a citizen, society and state is ensured.

The problem of civil society and its relationship with the state for political theory is not new. It was considered by the classics of political thought in past centuries. The term "civil society" was used by Hobbes and Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau and others. All those who were supporters of the contractual origin of the state, “natural law,” turned to him. However, the classics identified civil society with political society. Entry into civil society, according to Locke, meant the formation of a state. Civil society for him is political society. Physiocrats (Quane, Mirabeau and others) already distinguished between society and the state, considering the first the natural state of existence of people (an economic organization), and the second (the state), which arose at a certain stage of the historical development of society and was dependent on the will and actions of people. They argued that state power must create all conditions for freedom of economic competition and the proper functioning of society. But it does not have the right to interfere in the relationships of economic entities15.

Hegel attempted a philosophical understanding of the difference between civil society and the state. The scope of the state, according to Hegel, is general interests, and civil society is the sphere of private interests.

The problem of the relationship between civil society and the state was quite widely considered by K. Marx in his works dating back to the 40s and later years of the 19th century.

Prof. is right. V. Zotov, criticizing the erroneous idea that the term “civil society” is found only in early works classics of Marxism10. According to the subject index to the second edition of the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, the term “civil society” in its various semantic aspects is discussed in more than twenty volumes, on hundreds of pages. Unfortunately, in Soviet literature he was forgotten for decades.

For the theorists of Marxism, consideration of the problem of the relationship between the state and civil society, their criticism of the position of Hegel and the Young Hegelians on this issue was aimed at substantiating the materialist concept of history. The term "civil society" in the German text - "burgerli-che Gesellschaft" - means "bourgeois society". This is how it basically sounds in the works of classics. However, the authors (in particular, in the “German Ideology”) noted that “the same name has always denoted the organization developing directly from production and communication, which at all times forms the basis of the state and any other ... superstructure”17.

Accordingly, the classics themselves also in some works understood civil society as “a certain social system, a certain organization of the family, estates and classes,” and considered its official expression to be “a certain political system”18.

It should, however, be borne in mind that in most cases in Marxist texts, civil society is reduced to the totality of all material (economic relations) - to the sphere of material life.

What explains the fact that the concept of civil society is returning to the pages of a fairly wide press these days? French political scientist Dominique Colas writes that, starting in the 70s. of our century, no term has enjoyed more popularity than “civil society”: migrating from scientific publications to newspaper pages, it remains the subject of endless debate.”19 And the author, judging by the Russian press, is certainly right.

Unlike Marxist texts, this problem is currently being considered in the context of ensuring the further development of the activity of individuals in society, the possibilities of expanding and deepening its democratization and, at the same time, limiting the functions of the state and strengthening control over its activities by society.

In modern literature, the concept of “civil society” is interpreted ambiguously. And yet, most often, its content includes the entire set of non-political relations in society, i.e. economic, social, including national, spiritual, moral, religious, etc., which form the vital basis of the political system, the state.

There are also definitions of a less general nature. “Civil society,” says the French political scientist J. Kermann, “is composed of a multiplicity of interpersonal relationships and social forces that unite the men and women who make up a given society without direct intervention and assistance from the state”20. A. Migranyan defines the concept under consideration in an even more narrowed scope: “Civil society is the sphere of spontaneous self-expression of free individuals and voluntarily formed associations and organizations of citizens, which is protected by the necessary laws from direct interference and arbitrary regulation of the activities of these citizens by government bodies”21 .

Despite the obvious significance of the noted aspect, the definition of civil society cannot be reduced only to it. And this happens in journalistic speeches when it is stated that there was no civil society in the USSR, but only a totalitarian state existed. Civil society is an objective reality. “This is a set of “natural forms of social life of individuals... designed to ensure the satisfaction of their needs and interests”22. It can neither be absorbed nor eliminated by any political regime. Another question is what is the level of development of a given civil society, what social connections and relationships at one stage or another constitute its content, how realized or not realized the ability of members of society for creative work, self-government, what is the relationship between public authority and individual freedom, etc. State power can deform civil society, fetter the functioning of its elements, and minimize the autonomy and independence of individuals and social groups. But it is not in its power to eliminate the material and spiritual life of people, to forcibly abolish social groups, fundamental forms of organization human life, spiritual culture, and finally, the activity inherent in social objects. To assert the opposite means to agree with the idealistic dogma about the omnipotence of politics and the state.

Summarizing various ideas on the problem, it would be possible to formulate several conceptual provisions on the relationship between civil society and the state.

First. The concepts of “civil society” and “state” characterize different, but internally interconnected, mutually reinforcing aspects (elements) of global society, society as a single organism. These concepts are correlative; they can be contrasted only in certain aspects. Civil life to one degree or another is permeated by the phenomenon of the political, and the political is not isolated from the civil.

Second. The distinction between civil society and the state, which are components of the global whole, is a naturally logical process that characterizes the progress of the socio-economic and spiritual spheres, on the one hand, and the political sphere of life, on the other.

Third. Civil society is the fundamental basis of the political system; it determines and determines the state. In turn, the state as an institution is a system of institutions and norms that provide the conditions for the existence and functioning of civil society.

In some specific historical conditions, for example, within the framework of the dominance of more politically developed societies over less developed ones, the process of formation of civil society institutions is possible under the determining influence of political structures introduced into a given country, but still on the existing corporate-cultural basis.

Fourth. Civil society is not a collection of autonomous individuals whose law of life is anarchy. This is a form of community of people, a set of associations and other organizations that ensure the joint material and spiritual life of citizens and the satisfaction of their needs and interests. The state is the official expression of civil society, its political existence. Civil society is the sphere of manifestation and implementation of individual, group, and regional interests. The state is the sphere of expression and protection of common interests. The needs of civil society inevitably pass through the will of the state in order to gain universal significance in the form of laws. The state will is determined by the needs and interests of civil society23.

The objectivity of the contradiction between general and special (individual, group, etc.) interests determines the contradictions between the state and civil society.

Fifth. The more developed civil society is in the sense of the progress of the initiative of its members, the diversity of associations designed to express and protect the individual and group interests of people, the greater the scope for the development of democracy in the state. At the same time, the more democratic the political system, the wider the opportunities for the development of civil society to highest form unification of people and their free individual and collective life.

Civil society at the modern level of human civilization is a society with developed economic, cultural, legal, and political relations between individuals, groups and communities that are not mediated by the state24.

An objective approach to the analysis of socio-political life requires overcoming the false idea of ​​complete identification of state and society, which has long been rooted in the public consciousness. This idea excluded the very formulation of the problem of their relationship and interaction, and essentially rejected the fundamental recognition of the priority of civil society over the state. In the context of the dogmatized thesis about the primacy of politics over economics, social science and political practice involuntarily returned to the idealistic Hegelian formula about the state as the determining element in relation to civil society.

The unconditional identification of the state with society in the activities of leading entities in our country was initially largely explained by the insufficient development of the economic, social and spiritual spheres of life for the establishment of a new social system. And then it was deliberately imposed as a condition for consolidating the authoritarian-bureaucratic system. Now we have to “carry out another inversion in the relations between the state and society, which would meet the requirements of the political theory of Marxism”25

The emerging new, so to speak, democratic stereotype of thinking is closing the way for an adequate understanding of the problem of the relationship between civil society and the state. The formation of civil society is considered by some publicists and even politicians from the perspective of metaphysical opposition to the political system, even to the point of denying the regulatory and organizing role of the state. Calls for the complete denationalization of the economy and public life, the rejection of the need to establish a regulated (and not spontaneous) market in our country, the rise of legal nihilism, the decline of discipline and order, the revival of interest in anarchism - this and much more confirms what has been said.

World experience shows that the formation and development of civil society and the reform of the political system, as well as the opposite - their stagnation - are always interconnected processes. Our country's experience in this regard is no exception. In the first peaceful years after October, considerable steps were taken towards the establishment of elements of civil society, which followed from the NEP. Many democratic forms of life were introduced for the first time in the world, which were then developed in other countries: the right to work, workers’ control, equality of nations and nationalities, access to education for all segments of the population, public health care, etc. A fundamentally new type of political system was formed, which should have been based on the Soviets as organs of democracy. Unfortunately, by the end of the 20s. these processes began to quickly collapse. Instead of progress, there was a long-term stagnation of both civil society and the political system. Contrary to objectivity, in official propaganda this state was designated by the concept of “socio-political unity of society,” which excludes any contradictions as a source of vitality and development.

Overcoming the fossilized, forcibly asserted “unity” and replacing it with a genuine, living unity of members of society, social groups and institutions - this is the meaning of Russia’s democratization strategy. Reform of the political system, establishment of the rule of law - necessary condition and the most important aspect of the renovation process.

Of fundamental importance for understanding current problems are the following questions: about the content of the process of formation of civil society and about the basic elements of this process. Rejecting as incorrect the thesis about the “absorption” of civil society by the authoritarian-bureaucratic system, one should talk about its formation in the sense of: a) the formation and development of new economic relations, including pluralism of forms of ownership and the market, as well as the real social structure of society determined by them; b) the formation of a system of real interests that is adequate to this structure, binding individuals, social groups and layers into a single community; c) the emergence of various forms of labor associations, social and cultural associations, amateur organizations, socio-political movements that constitute the main institutions of civil society and the environment for revealing the creative activity of working people; d) renewal of relationships between all social groups and communities (class, national, regional, professional, gender, age, etc.); e) creating material social and spiritual prerequisites for creative self-realization of the individual; f) the formation and deployment of mechanisms of social self-regulation and self-government at all levels of the social organism, in all its cells.

Many authors persistently pursue the idea: the basis of civil society can only be private ownership of the means of production. As if only it nourishes the strength of the civil community, capable of balancing the strength of political power. Only private property serves as the basis for the autonomy of civil society. Essentially, proponents of this point of view argue, civil society is a society of “private interests and affairs, where everyone owns something and everyone has the right to their own business.” This is a society “in which people are connected with each other as individuals independent of each other - independent owners and masters of their private business”20.

To the many well-known arguments against private property, I will add the following. History has not yet proven that public property and collective labor cannot bind people into a single community. The crisis of the monopoly of state property in a number of socialist countries does not mean the historical collapse of public property as such. And on the contrary, the well-known thesis of socialists has been repeatedly confirmed: private property divides people and makes them antagonists. In modern developed capitalist countries, various economic and social mechanisms have developed to neutralize the negative social consequences of the dominance of private property. And it has been largely transformed and supplemented by a powerful sector of collective ownership.

I note that some Western theorists, who cannot be accused of socialist sympathies, note the negative impact of private property and market relations on the institutions of civil society. The famous American political scientist I. Shapiro notes that the “innovative dynamics” of capitalism “is at the same time a dynamics that transforms everything with which it comes into contact. Politics, family, life, even religious practice - all this, the further, the more inexorably subordinates it to its demands and remakes the motive of profit in its own image and likeness.” In the United States, politics and religion revolve - are corrupted - around the desire to make money27. Thus, the institutions of civil society, emphasizes I. Shapiro, mutually undermine each other, creating a social landscape that does not promote, but hinders democracy.

It seems more correct to admit that all existing forms of property should be included in the basis of Russian civil society. This will contribute to the harmonization of its institutions. Moreover, it must be emphasized that any form of ownership in itself does not create sufficient conditions either for the autonomy of citizens, or for their free property and association in self-governing associations. The basis is the entire set of economic relations, the entire structure of the economy. And the criterion for the functioning of civil society is the system of various social interests generated by it, which binds individuals and groups into a viable community.

Historical practice has revealed the inextricable connection between civil society and the rule of law, and has proven the need for political registration in the form of a rule of law state, which is realized in the struggle of certain social forces.

A. Gramsci in his “Prison Notebooks” showed one of the key moments of this historical process that took place in Italy - the formation of the separation of powers. He noted that the separation of powers and all the discussion associated with its implementation, as well as the legal dogma generated by it, were the result of a struggle between civil and political society38.

This struggle took place in conditions of an unstable balance between classes and strata, some of which still retained close ties with the old ruling classes, while others, mainly the popular masses, were hostile towards them and the political institutions that personified them. The struggle resulted in a conflict between the church, which claimed to represent civil society as a whole (although it was only one, relatively less important, element of it), and the state, which was becoming secular. It was reflected in the ideology of political and economic liberalism, which substantiated the need for separation of powers - the most important feature of a rule of law state.

The modern political picture of the world is also filled with hotbeds of struggle between civil society and the state. For the process of democratization of society and the establishment of a rule-of-law state, where law prevails, is a worldwide process. And the palette of forms of political life of numerous peoples of the world includes various types regimes - from democratic to totalitarian and forms of government - from confederation to unitary state. It is quite clear that the degree of development of the elements of the rule of law and the horizons for the development of civil society and its institutions are not the same under different political structures. Therefore, when it comes to the rule of law as a model modern society, we mean an abstraction that characterizes a certain norm (ideal) of a developed political society at the present stage of world history.

The dialectic of interaction between civil society and the state finds expression in mutual progressive changes. One of the significant results of such changes was the formation of a social legal state in developed capitalist countries. Its functions include ensuring the satisfaction of the most important social needs of the broad masses of the population: organization of health care, education. Of course, such a state also has its negative features, for which neoconservatives criticize it. It certainly has not lost its class character. The social state has expressed and expresses the interests of economically dominant groups. Nevertheless, the fact of a qualitative change is obvious. And one of the reasons for it was the struggle of the broad masses to improve their lives, that is, the processes taking place in the sphere of civil society.