3 types of classification. Classifications of infections. Various types of classifications. The severity of an infectious disease is directly dependent on the virulence of the causative microorganism and

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Educational institution

Belorussian state university transport

Department of Philosophy, History and Political Science

Test №1

in the discipline "Logic"

Classification and its role in cognition

Gomel 2008

Work plan:

1.

2.

.

4.Logic problems

Introduction

Quite a wide range of names have a multi-level structure, the identification of which is impossible as a result of a single division. The need to detect species of different orders in the structure of the volume of a generic name prompts us to resort to multi-stage, sequential division for these purposes. Its essence consists in highlighting the generic name of first-order species in the volume, in the volumes of which second-order species are then identified in relation to the original volume. The latter are divided into third-order types, etc. Such sequential division is called classification.

In contrast to simple division, carried out arbitrarily, depending on immediate needs, classifications are stable systems for distributing objects into classes that are preserved in science. The stable nature of the classification is due to the fact that they are based on the most significant signs from a scientific point of view, due to which they consolidate the results of a long process of cognition of objects in a certain area of ​​reality. Scientific classifications in a condensed form contain a vast amount of information about the objects being studied.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that classification plays a big role in scientific knowledge and practical activities people. It allows us to correctly navigate the world around us, make the right decisions and carry out effective (leading to achieving the goals we need) actions.

Purpose of the work:

1)Study the concept and functions of classification;

)Analyze classification rules and errors.

1. Concept, classification functions

Species concepts resulting from dividing the volume of a generic concept, in turn, can themselves be subject to division. For example, numbers can be divided into real and imaginary, then real numbers into rational and irrational, in turn, rational numbers into whole fractions, etc. This division is called sequential. Consistent division is the basis of classification. Classification cannot be considered a special type of division along with division by modification of a characteristic and dichotomy, since both of these types of division can be used in it simultaneously.

Classification is the systematic distribution of objects into classes based on some common characteristic, carried out in such a way that each class occupies a strictly defined and precise fixed place in relation to other classes.

The term “classification” means both the process of distributing objects into classes and the result of this process, usually fixed in tables, diagrams, graphs, codes, etc.

Since classification represents a certain system of our knowledge about the objects of any field, it is characterized by specific features that distinguish it from other types of division.

Firstly, the basis or principle of classification should be the feature most suitable for finding objects in the classification system or determining their properties.

Secondly, in contrast to the types of division discussed above, through which objects are divided depending on the scientific or practical need that arises at every step, the classification is stable, used in science and everyday life for a long time, a system of distributing objects into classes. The classification retains its meaning until it is replaced by a new, more advanced one.

Thirdly, if in the types of division we have considered the members of the division are only species of one order, then in the classification, in addition to this, species of other orders are sometimes indicated. Thus, in the classification, the division is carried out sequentially from the highest class to the lowest. It represents an extensive system of species concepts.

2. Types of classification. Natural and artificial classification

There are two types of classification: auxiliary and natural (scientific).

An auxiliary classification is created with the goal of quickly finding any individual item among the classified items. The purpose of this classification determines the principle of its construction. The auxiliary classification is based on some external insignificant feature, which, however, turns out to be useful in the search process.

Examples of auxiliary classification could be the distribution of course students in a list in alphabetical order, or the same distribution of library cards in an alphabetical catalog, etc. Knowing the order of the letters in the alphabet, we can easily and quickly find the name we need in the list or information about the book we are interested in in the catalog.

But knowing what place a particular object occupies in the auxiliary classification system does not make it possible to state anything about its properties. So, for example, the fact that student Arkhipov is listed first, and student Yakovlev - last, says absolutely nothing about their abilities and character traits. Therefore, the auxiliary classification is not scientific.

In contrast to auxiliary classification, natural classification is the distribution of objects into classes based on their most significant characteristics. The most significant features of an object are those that determine its other features. For example, the most essential characteristic of a person is his ability to work. This sign predetermines the presence in a person of such characteristics as upright walking, the ability to communicate (work presupposes a team), the ability to think, etc.

Classification has a connection with the definition of concepts. Those characteristics in accordance with which objects are distributed into classes must be distinctive species-forming characteristics. We have already seen that indicating the specific distinctive feature is the main task of definition, therefore knowledge of the classification of objects makes it possible to determine them. The more significant a feature underlies the classification, the deeper definitions can be given to the objects included in the classification system.

Thus, natural classification, in contrast to auxiliary classification, allows one to determine the properties of this object based on the place occupied in it by one or another object, without resorting to experimental verification. In some cases, natural classification makes it possible to detect a pattern in changes in the properties of classified objects, which makes it possible to foresee the existence of as yet undiscovered objects and predict their main characteristics. For example, based on the periodic table of elements D.I. Mendeleev predicted the existence of such elements, unknown at that time and later discovered, as gallium, scandium and germanium. Similarly, the American physicist Gell-Mann, based on his classification elementary particles predicted the existence of some particles unknown to him and determined their properties. Later these particles were discovered experimentally.

Although classification plays a huge role in cognition, this role cannot be absolute. Any classification is relative. The relativity of classification is due to two factors: firstly, the relativity of our knowledge and, secondly, the fact that in nature there are no sharp boundaries between individual species.

With the development of science, the classification is clarified and supplemented, as the human mind comprehends the ever deeper essence of things. Instead of one classification, another, more adequate (corresponding) to reality, can be created.

Over time, after being recognized as natural, a classification can turn into an artificial one if it turns out that it was based on an insignificant, secondary feature. Such a classification is rejected as unsuitable for science and practice. The history of science knows many similar examples.

The classification of plants created by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus also turned out to be artificial. Since the basis was based on an insignificant feature (the number of stamens and the method of their attachment to flowers), as a result of the classification, the elementary rules of division were not observed. Related groups of plants (for example, cereals) found themselves in different, extremely dissimilar classes. Conversely, completely dissimilar plants (for example, oak and one type of sedge) ended up in the same class.

The relative, approximate nature of the classification is also due to the fact that in nature there are no sharp demarcation lines separating a class of objects from another. There are many transitional forms that stand on the border between different classification groups, preserving the features of both one and the other group. F. Engels wrote about this: “Hard and fast lines (absolutely sharp demarcation lines) are incompatible with the theory of development. Even the dividing line between vertebrates and invertebrates is no longer absolute, just like between fish and amphibians; and the boundary between birds and reptiles is disappearing more and more every day.”

Classification always operates with concepts such as species, genus, class, accordingly distributing classified objects. According to F. Engels, these concepts “thanks to the theory of development have become fluid and thereby relative.” All this gives the classification a relative, approximate character. But even in this relative meaning, classification continues to be a serious means of scientific knowledge, since before exploring development and change, it is necessary to know what is changing and developing. Since every classification is built on a single principle, since it allows us to consider the classified objects in their unity, interconnection and interaction, it allows us to establish patterns of their development.

3. Rules and errors (traps) of classification

Classification is subject to all rules of logical division. In addition, it has its own special rules.

1. Continuity rule.The classification must be continuous. This means that when classifying objects, you need to move on to the closest types without skipping them. For example, when classifying members of sentences, it would be correct to first identify the main and minor members of sentences, then subdivide the main ones into subject and predicate, and the secondary ones into definition, addition, circumstance, etc. This will result in a consistent transition from the genus to the closest species, subspecies, etc. But the condition of continuity will be violated if we immediately move from the concept of a member of a sentence to the concepts of subject, predicate, definition, complement, circumstance, because the latter are not the closest species in relation to the concept of a member of a sentence. A violation of this rule will occur in the case of the list: the main member of the sentence, definition, addition, circumstance. Classification of this kind is called spasmodic, and the error allowed in this case is called a “jump in classification.”

In some cases, identifying the closest species is not an easy task. This is especially true for scientific research when knowledge invades the realm of the unknown. Here a prescription based on the following relationship may be useful: if the scope of the name A is included in the scope of the name A, then A is a closer species in relation to the genus A.

. Rule of materiality of grounds. Classification should be made according to essential characteristics. The criterion for the significance of a particular attribute is the ability of the object possessing it to serve as a means of solving the task at hand. The multiplicity of problems solved using the same objects gives rise to a multiplicity of classifications of these objects. To every graduate high school The modern classification (typology) of living beings is familiar. It contains the so-called taxonomic units (species, genera, families, orders, classes) are distinguished in such a way that the question of the origin of life becomes clear. The basis for this classification is the objective process of historical development of species.

But another, earlier classification is also known, belonging to the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus (1707-1778). Before him as a supporter of creationism, i.e. teachings about the creation of the world by God out of nothing, the question of the origin of species did not even arise, but, being an experienced and observant researcher, he could not help but notice many regularities in the kingdom of living beings. To bring it into a system convenient for use, Linnaeus proposed classifying organisms according to the similarity in the structure of their reproductive organs. Plants, in particular, were classified according to the number of stamens in the flower and the method of their attachment. As a result, lilac found itself in close proximity to the golden spikelet (both of them have two stamens), carrots - with currants (they have five stamens each), reeds were included in the same class with barberry (six stamens). The situation was similar in the animal system, where Linnaeus included unicellular organisms, mollusks, echinoderms, etc. into the class of worms. This approach gave the scientist the opportunity in many cases to remain in harmony with nature, but did not solve the main problems that biological science was already facing at that time.

Many peoples have their own classifications of living beings. The Navajo Indians of North America classify living beings into speaking and non-speaking. Non-speaking creatures are then divided into animals and plants. Then, on the basis of obvious perceived properties, the first are divided into running, flying and crawling. Next, each group is once again divided into those moving during the day and those moving at night. It is easy to see that this classification is compiled in accordance with the similarities in the methods of hunting animals. It has been tested by the centuries-old practice of people living in certain conditions and is then completely justified.

classification grouping object sign

4. Logic problems

1. Will the requirement of adequacy (proportionality) of classification be violated?, if the volume of the “people” class is divided as follows: Slavs, Chinese, blacks, women, men, believers?

“People are divided into Slavs, Chinese, blacks, men, women, believers.” The requirement of adequacy (proportionality) is a rule of logical division, which states that each of the volumes A1, A2, ... An must be a type of volume A (in this case, “people”), and the sum of A1, A2, ... An must exhaust the entire volume A.

In this example, a violation of the rule of proportionality led to the error “incomplete division”, when not all species of the divisible genus are named and the sum of the volumes of the members of the division is less than the volume of the divisible name “people”.

It would be proportionate to divide the scope of the concept “people” into men and women (in this case, the presence of members of the division “Slavs” in this classification leads to a violation of the rule of the uniqueness of the base and the error “shift of the base”).

2. Establish the form and correctness of the following divisions, type of logical error:Logical forms are divided into statements and syllogisms. Syllogisms can be inductive or non-inductive. Fertilizers are divided into organic, phosphorus and potassium. The aircraft consists of a fuselage, wings, control system, and landing gear. Culture is divided into material, spiritual and moral. People can be both bad and good. People are divided into men, women and children.

1. Logical forms are divided into statements and syllogisms.

2. Syllogisms can be inductive or non-inductive. Dichotomous division. Correct in form, but not correct in content (syllogisms can only be deductive, i.e. “non-inductive” conclusions).

3. Fertilizers are divided into organic, phosphorus and potassium. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error “jump in division” (phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are types of inorganic fertilizers).

4. The aircraft consists of a fuselage, wings, control system, and landing gear. Analytical division is the division of a whole volume into parts.

5. Culture is divided into material, spiritual and moral. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “division with extra members” (an extra member of the division is moral culture).

6. People can be both bad and good. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “incomplete division” (there are people who are neither bad nor good).

7. People are divided into men, women and children. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “division with extra members” (extra member of division “children”).

3. Find the sum of the volumes of classes A and B (AUB) in each of the following cases: 1) poet (A) - prose writer (B); 2) sports facility (A) - stadium (B); 3) even natural number (A) - odd natural number (B); 4) the last letter of the Russian alphabet (A) is the thirty-third letter of the Russian alphabet (B); 5) king (A) - the current king of Poland (B).

a) Writer, b) sports facility, c) natural number, d) letter “I”, e) king.

References:

1.Barton V.I. Logic: Textbook. allowance / V.I. Barton. - Mn.: New knowledge, 2001. - 336 p. - (Social and humanitarian education).

2.Bocharov V.A., Markin V.I. Fundamentals of Logic: Textbook. - M.: INFRA - M, 1999. - 296 p.

.Voishvillo E.K., Degtyarev M.G. Logic: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing house VLADOS - PRESS, 2001. - 528 p.

.Getmanova A.D. Logic: Dictionary and problem book: Textbook. manual for university students. - M.: Humanist. ed. VLADOS center, 1998. -336 p.

.Logic: Textbook. allowance / V.F. Berkov, V.I. Barton, I.I. Dubinin and others; Under general ed. prof. V.F. Berkova. - Mn.: Higher. school, 1994. - 296 p.

.Logic: Textbook for universities / V.F. Berkov, Ya.S. Yaskevich, V.I. Pavlyukevich; Under general ed. prof. V.F. Berkova. - Mn.: TetraSystems, 2000. - 416 p.

.Logics. Ml.; BSU Publishing House, 1974. - 336 p.

.Collection of logic exercises: For universities. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional / Ed. A.S. Klevcheni and V.I. Barton. - Mn.: Universitetskoe, 1990. - 288 p.

After studying this topic, you will learn:

What are classes and subclasses;
- what is the basis for classification;
- what is inheritance of properties;
- why classification is needed;
- how to classify various objects;
- how computer documents are classified.

Classes and classification

Man has the inherent ability to generalize and organize the entire variety of objects. Each noun reflects a person’s idea of ​​a large group of objects: a house, a table, a book. Objects of one group have characteristics common to the entire group, as well as some features that allow them to be distinguished from other objects.

It is human nature to identify several objects that are related by some characteristic, considering them as an independent object.

For example, about the violin, cello, viola, double bass, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, we say that these are “musical instruments”. Seeing cups, saucers, a sugar bowl, and a teapot on the table, we call it the general word “dishes.” These groups of objects have some general properties, they can be equally influenced to obtain a certain result. They usually exist in the same environment. Such groups of objects are called “classes”. 

A class is a group of objects with the same set of characteristics.

The objects included in a class are called instances of the class. You need to understand that the objects that you have combined for some parameters into a class with a common name differ from each other in specific parameter values. For example, balls, while maintaining the basic properties of this class of objects (lightness, elasticity), can differ in material (rubber, rubber, leather), color, size. Birds are called eagle and chicken, ostrich and hummingbird. Even within a narrow class, specimens can vary greatly: among the winged insects called “bees” there are queen bees, drones, and worker bees. This reveals an important property of classes - the variety of instances included in the class. These differences make it possible to distinguish narrower groups within classes - subclasses, that is, to classify objects in the surrounding world.

Classification is the distribution of objects into classes and subclasses based on common characteristics.

The classification results are usually displayed in the form of a hierarchical (tree) diagram. General view such a diagram is shown in Figure 9.1.

Externally, the classification scheme resembles an inverted tree, which is why it is called hierarchical (tree-like). The dotted lines in the diagram highlight the hierarchy levels. The topmost level (the root of the tree) specifies the main features that make it possible to distinguish objects of this class from others. Each subsequent lower level distinguishes groups of objects from a higher level based on the coincidence of one or more characteristics. At the bottom level there are specific instances of selected subclasses.

You may have already encountered similar diagrams when studying biology, history and other subjects. 

Rice. 9.1. General view of the hierarchical diagram

This type of diagram is often depicted pedigree. It is commonly called a family tree.

Pedigree is a list of generations of one clan, establishing the origin and degree of relationship.  

Basis of classification

You are already familiar with well-known examples of classification. For example, in biology this is the classification of plants and animals. Since ancient times, people, becoming familiar with the diversity of life forms on Earth, have sought to distribute this diversity into groups. This is how a natural classification developed, based on observation and grouping according to certain characteristics. The ideas presented in C. Linnaeus’s book “Species of Plants,” published in 1753, still serve as the starting point for plant classification. Since that time, a double name for plants has been used: the first part of the name indicates the subclass (family), and the second - the specific characteristics of the specimen of this subclass. For example, the name Citrus limon indicates that we are talking about the citrus family, and specifically about the lemon tree.

Not only natural, but also artificial objects can be classified: in grammar, it is common to divide words into parts of speech, in physics - the classification of types of movement, in mathematics - the classification of numbers. They are based on the grouping of objects according to one or more intentionally selected characteristics. In different branches of science and technology, classes and subclasses may have their own specific names: types, families, departments, categories, groups, etc. However, their essence does not change.

Consider the “book” object. By this word we mean a wide variety of books: fiction and technical, different authors, different prices, thick and thin, in gift edition and paperback...

Now imagine that you need to put all this diversity “on the shelves” in the literal sense of the word, for example, organize your library.

Everyone will approach this issue differently. One person will arrange all the books in alphabetical order, according to the author's last name. Another will divide them into genres: detective, fantasy, adventure, romance or historical novels. The third will place them on the shelves, guided by the color of the binding and the size of the books (you've probably come across this approach). Despite the difference in classification methods, all these examples have something in common: the division of objects into “related” groups (classes), for which there is one or more common parameters.

In all the examples given, a common feature was chosen when grouping: in the first case it is the author, in the second case it is the genre, in the third case it is color and size. It was precisely on the basis of these characteristics that objects whose meaning coincided were then distinguished from the general mass.

There may be several such general signs. They are the basis of classification. Having chosen the basis, subclasses can be distinguished from the class with the general name “book”: “book of a certain author”, “book of a certain genre”, “book of a certain size”.

Classification is a creative process , so each person can have their own scheme. One of the possible options for identifying subclasses from the class of books is shown in Figure 9.2.

Rice. 9.2. Classification of books

On the first level The criterion “fiction” (yes, no) was chosen as the basis for dividing books into two groups. On this basis, there was a division into fiction and technical literature.

On the second level a sign of identifying subclasses could be called “form of presentation of information” (fiction, poetry, dictionaries, etc.). 

Third level partitions can be characterized by the feature “style of presentation”.

Fourth level classifications are allocated only for novels, so as not to clutter the diagram. The sign of this level is “genre”.

At the lowest level There are specific copies of various books.

Property inheritance

The most important property of classes is inheritance. This word is familiar to you. Children inherit character traits from their parents and external signs. Each subclass that is distinguished from a class inherits the properties and actions inherent in that class. In the example shown in Figure 9.2, both the novel by D. S. Merezhkovsky, and all other published novels, and all fiction in general, inherit general properties and actions from the “book” class. They are all printed on paper, bound and designed to be read.

From the above classification it is clear that a hierarchical structure (tree) has formed. At its head is the ancestor class - “book”. At the very core, instances of subclasses are specific books by specific authors.

This tree structure with a common root is called an “inheritance hierarchy.” The characteristics and behavior associated with instances of a particular class become available to any class lower in the hierarchical tree.

When you say that “a book is a source of knowledge,” you mean both all books in general and a specific book, for example, “On Tasty and Healthy Food.” This is where inheritance comes into play.

Why is classification needed?

□ Classification allows you to select from the entire variety of objects groups with properties of interest to the researcher and focus on their study. 

Let's assume that you are an inexperienced gardener, but want to use the achievements of science to grow on your plot good harvests tomatoes. You don’t need to study a thick volume of “Plant Growing”; just read books about the nightshade family, and even better, about the peculiarities of growing tomatoes in your area.

□ Classification of objects is carried out with the aim of establishing hereditary connections between objects. The inheritance property allows you to study the characteristics of all objects of a class without being tied to a specific instance.

In geology, there is the “theory of uniform change,” which states that all natural factors act in the same way everywhere. There is no need to study how winds act on the Ural Mountains, since the mechanism of destruction of mountains under the influence of winds has long been studied, it is the same for all cases. The same applies to earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, mudflows, etc.

□ Classification allows you to systematize knowledge about objects of any nature and purpose.

This statement is illustrated by the fact that there is not a single school discipline that does not use the classification of objects of study as a means of summarizing the information received in the lessons. Open any textbook and see for yourself.

Examples of classification of various objects

By examining the same object for different purposes, you can see its different facets. For example, a doctor, when describing a specific person, will focus on the symptoms of a possible disease.

The psychologist will be interested in character traits and mental characteristics. Social services will pay attention to age, presence of relatives, living conditions. Therefore, the same objects can be classified in different ways by choosing one or another basis. You have already encountered examples of various classifications in the textbook. For example, when studying section 1, you classify information according to different criteria: by the method of perception and by the form of presentation.

Figure 9.3 shows another example of information classification - by content.

Rice. 9.3. Classification of information by content

In this classification, based on the “content” attribute, the following groups of information are distinguished at the first level:

♦ statistical - indicators of development of production and society;
♦ commercial - the most important information about production, trade and financial transactions;
♦ environmental - information about the condition environment and the impact of human activities on nature;
♦ political - information about activities state power, social movements and parties;
♦ other (demographic, medical, etc.).

All identified subclasses are characterized by the same properties (clarity, completeness, relevance, etc.) and actions (exchange, storage, processing) as the higher class “information”.

Let us give another example of a classification concerning the most significant systems (Figure 9.4).

Human participation in the creation of the system (natural and artificial) was chosen as the basis for classification at the first level.

At the second level, the basis for classification was the “sphere of human activity” feature. The following subclasses of systems are highlighted here:
♦ spiritual ones relating to a person’s spiritual life;
♦ technological related to human production activities;
♦ organizational ones providing services for all types of activities.

Rice. 9.4. Classification of the most significant systems

The diagram does not show further branching of the tree, as this would make the drawing cumbersome. But it is understood that further subclassification is possible. For example, considering the class of systems called “Art”, it was possible to distinguish the following subclasses according to the means of implementing the authors’ plans: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Literature, Theater, Music, Cinema, etc.

Along with established and generally recognized classifications, any classification of objects has the right to exist if a characteristic feature is taken as its basis and the rules for identifying classes and subclasses are followed. Figure 9.5 shows an example of the classification used in real life and means of transportation found in fairy tales.

Here, at level zero, there is a class of objects with the general name “vehicles”.

At the first level, two subclasses are distinguished based on “reality” (they exist in real life or in fairy tales and fantasies). 

Rice. 9.5. Classification of vehicles

The second level distinguishes new subgroups from real and fairy-tale means of transportation on the basis of “travel medium.”

The third level divides real vehicles into subgroups based on the “type of vehicle.” The diagram does not indicate the allocation of subgroups from real ground vehicles, so as not to clutter it. But these groups could be as follows: rail, road. Further subdivision is possible. It is important to understand that lower levels inherit all the characteristic features characteristic of higher levels: for example, the Ka-26 object, which belongs to the subclass of helicopters, inherits the medium of movement (air) from the higher level, and is also a real means of transportation with all the accompanying features (there is in real life, transports people and goods).

Classification of computer documents

In the most general sense, a computer can be called an information processing tool. There are many different software environments for this. Developers are constantly improving programs, making them easier to work with and providing them with new features.

In order not to “drown” in a sea of ​​software products, the user must have a very good idea of ​​what information he has to work with. Each software environment is designed to create documents of a certain type.

In practical classes you have already become acquainted with many types of computer documents, which will be mentioned when classifying documents.

The diagram shown in Figure 9.6 shows the classification in which the “purpose of the document” attribute is selected as the basis. The main purpose of computer documents is to present information in a user-friendly form. Table 9.1 provides more specific characteristics of each class of documents.

Rice. 9.6. Classification of computer documents

Please note that the name of the environment usually matches the type of document and the form of information presented in it.

The above classification will help you choose a medium in accordance with the intended form of information presentation.

Currently, the documents used in various areas human activity are created on a computer. Let's look at examples of documents for various purposes and areas of application.

A literary work, a newspaper article, an order are examples of text documents.

Drawings, drawings, diagrams are graphic documents. 

Table 9.1. Types of computer documents

An accountant at an enterprise presents data in tabular form for calculating employee salaries. The main feature of spreadsheets is that they allow you not only to present information in tabular form, but also to perform automatic calculations using formulas that link table cells.

One type of computer document is a database. It is a collection of ordered information about objects. In everyday life, you have come across databases more than once. This includes a card index with the titles of books in the library, a telephone directory, and a catalog of goods. Currently, instead of conventional “paper” databases, computer databases are being created everywhere, represented by documents of the appropriate type. The Help Desk Manager has a comprehensive computer database at his disposal to answer any of your questions. The database management system provides a quick search for the information you are interested in.

Text, graphics, tables, databases are examples of documents that present one type of information.

However, most often we deal with composite documents in which information is present in different forms. Such documents can contain text, formulas, pictures, tables, and much more. School textbooks, magazines, newspapers are well-known examples of composite documents.

To create composite documents, software environments are used that provide the ability to present information in different forms.

Development software has led to the emergence of new types of computer documents. In particular, these are presentations and hypertext documents.

The presentation is a collection of computer slides. A special program provides not only the preparation of information, but also its display according to a pre-created scenario.

Hypertext is a document that contains so-called hyperlinks to other parts of the document or other files that contain additional information. 

Test questions and assignments

1. Why do you need to classify objects?

2. What is the basis of any classification?

3. Give an example of classifying objects according to general properties.

4. Give an example of classifying objects according to common actions.

5. Can the environment of existence become the basis for classification?

6. Classify objects with the general name “bicycle”.

7. Classify household dishes according to the following criteria: material, purpose, durability.

8. Offer several options for arranging (classifying) various objects on your desk.

9. Name the basis on which the following objects could fall into one group:

■ kangaroo, platypus, rabbit, armadillo;
■ rose, wheel, football boots, cactus;
■ milk, gasoline, acid, magma.

10. Name the dissimilar objects of the surrounding world that would be included in one group based on the “one substance” basis.

11. What classifications are used in your school environment?

12. List the most common groups of computer documents.

13. Give examples of classes of software products. What classification basis can be chosen for this?

14. What classification basis can be used to distinguish computer hardware groups?

15. What classes of computer memory do you know?

Classification is a logical process of distributing any set (concepts, properties, phenomena, objects) into categories (subsets) of different levels depending on certain characteristics and selected methods of division.

Classification object

According to the trade classification, the following groups of food products are distinguished: bakery products, fruits and vegetables, confectionery, dairy and butter, and sausages, eggs, edible fats, tobacco products.

Food products are divided into grocery and gastronomic. Groceries include cereals, flour, yeast, pasta, dried vegetables and fruits, coffee, salt, spices, sugar, starch, food concentrates and others, i.e. products that require additional cooking before consumption. Gastronomic products include ready-to-eat products without cooking or with enhanced taste properties: (cheeses, butter, milk, etc.), alcoholic beverages, smoked and canned goods, confectionery, meat and fish products.

Non-food products according to trading system classifications are divided into the following product groups: household and haberdashery goods (textiles, leather, metal haberdashery); household chemical products (adhesives, etc.); (dishes, sheet glass, lamp products); (porcelain, earthenware, majolica dishes, pottery, artistic and decorative items); building materials (binding substances, metal, ceramic and other materials); furniture products (wooden furniture, etc.); metal goods (dishes, cutlery, hardware and locks, tools, etc.); (wires and cords, installation products, electric lamps, electric heating devices, household machines, electrical measuring instruments); textile goods (fabrics, non-woven materials, piece goods); sewing goods (outerwear, ready-made dresses, underwear, hats); knitted goods (outer and underwear knitwear, hosiery and gloves, etc.); (leather, rubber and felted shoes); (fur semi-finished products, fur and sheepskin fur products); jewelry and watches; paper and products made from it, school writing supplies and stationery, musical, photographic and household radio-electronic equipment, toys, sporting goods. A separate group consists of books and other printed publications.

These groups are sometimes combined or, conversely, disaggregated. Thus, glass, ceramic and metal goods are combined into the group of household goods.

Educational classification

Educational classification used in the practice of teaching merchandising, it serves to study the consumer properties of goods, reveals general principles formation and preservation of these properties allows you to most fully study the range of products.

The educational classification is close to the trade classification, but is more consistent. In educational classifications aimed at studying the range of goods, the most important feature is the purpose.

In accordance with the educational classification, goods are also divided into two sections: food and non-food.

All food products according to the educational classification are divided into 9 main groups: grain and flour products; vegetables, fruits and mushrooms; flavoring goods; confectionery products; edible fats; dairy products; meat products; fishery products; eggs and egg products.

This classification is based on the common origin of goods, chemical composition, features of production technology, purpose and storage conditions.

In accordance with the educational classification, all non-food products are divided into the following groups: plastics and household chemicals; metal goods; silicate products; wood and furniture products; electrical goods; textile goods; sewing and knitted goods; leather and footwear goods; fur goods; perfumes and cosmetics, jewelry; electronic goods; toys, printed materials, etc.

Economic-statistical classification

Economic-statistical classification considered the most complete. It is presented in All-Russian classifier products OK 005-93 (OKP). OKP is intended to ensure reliability, comparability and automated processing of information about products in such areas as standardization, certification, quality management, production, statistics, economics and others.

Each OKP position contains a six-digit digital code, a single-digit control number and the name of the product group, which are written in the following form:

CC code Name

815320 3 Special braided cords

The OKP provides for a 5-stage hierarchical classification with a digital decimal coding system. At each level of classification, division is carried out according to the most significant economic and technical classification criteria.

At the first stage of classification there are product classes (XX 000), at the second - subclasses (XX ХХОО), at the third - groups (XX ХХОО), at the fourth - subgroups
(XX ХХХО) and on the fifth - types of products (XX ХХХХ).

Codes of 2 - 5-digit product groupings are padded with zeros to 6 digits and are written with an interval between the second and third digits.

Product classification in OKP can be completed at the third, fourth or fifth stages of the classification division.

For unambiguous understanding and delimitation of the scope of concepts used individual items OKP include explanations. Explanations are given directly below the name of the item to which they relate.

Explanations are provided to exclude the possibility that an object included in another position of the classifier will fall into this position of the classifier, for the purpose of a uniform understanding by specialists of individual words or phrases as part of the name of the position if it is necessary to clarify the scope of application of this position or if it is necessary to list objects that may be included in this position .

For example:

58 5300 4 Culvert parts

Explanation: including bottom slabs, slab blocks, caps.

The use of this classifier in the practice of trade and commodity science is difficult, since the grouping of products does not coincide with either the trade or educational classification of goods. The same product groups in OKP are included in different classes, since they are produced by different industries. Thus, household goods are included in dozens of classes and subclasses of products that have different code designations. Thus, the OKP classifier does not reflect many of the characteristics of goods and trade interests; in particular, it does not take into account the consumer properties of goods.

Standard classification

In merchandising it is possible to use standard classification, presented in state and industry standards.

The standard classification is used to determine requirements, nomenclature of quality indicators, test conditions and methods, quality control, to develop procedures, etc. This classification system is reflected in the All-Russian Classifier of Standards (OKS).

The main classification features underlying the division of goods in accordance with the standard classification are industry and purpose. Classification based on purpose is fixed in state standards the fourth system, called the quality indicator system. For example, knitted goods according to this classification system are divided into outerwear, linen, hosiery and gloves.

Foreign economic classification

Foreign economic classification began to be used in Russia relatively recently. This classification was developed on the basis of the Harmonized System of Description and Coding of Goods (HS) and the Combined Tariff and Statistical Nomenclature of the European Economic Community (CN EEC). It is reflected in the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity (TN FEA) and serves as the basis for regulating foreign economic activity. The foreign economic classification has been agreed upon with international organizations and systematizes all goods that are the subject of international trade.

In the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, all goods are clearly assigned to certain classification groups. Explanations for each classification group are contained in the Notes to sections, groups, specific product items and in the Basic Rules for the Interpretation of the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, which have legal force.

Correct determination of the position of goods in the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS is crucial for analyzing the activities of firms and enterprises, regulating production and trade, quantitative and qualitative assessment of goods, insurance, determining rates of customs duties and other payments, developing a regime for the export-import of certain goods, comparison data on foreign trade of various countries and conducting economic and statistical analysis to compare prices for goods.

In the Commodity Classification of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, the coding of goods is carried out using a ten-digit digital code, the first six digits of which correspond to the code designation adopted in the HS coding system. The same six digits, plus the seventh and eighth, form the product code according to the Unified Economic System Code. The ninth and tenth categories are intended to detail certain commodity items, taking into account the interests of Russia and other members of the commonwealth. While the tenth digit has a zero code.

A significant drawback of the foreign economic classification system is its difficulty in use: special knowledge is required to determine the position of the product and its code.

General rules and methods of classification

Classification allows you to divide goods into certain categories or levels in accordance with the accepted classification method. The division is carried out from the highest level of classification to the lowest. The number of classification stages depends on its goals, objectives, complexity and number of classified objects.

The highest levels of classification are section and class. The middle stages of classification are group and species. After the “type” there are lower levels of classification, which include: variety, article. When classifying, auxiliary categories are also used: subsection, subclass, subgroup, etc.

View- this is the main classification characteristic of goods. It represents the final product of production, has a specific purpose and its own name, which reflects its external feature or internal content. For example, glass, sofa, chintz, apple, cod belong to the species category. But dishes, furniture, fabrics, fruits and fish do not belong to this category, since they combine several types.

General rules for constructing a classification should be considered:

• establishing the purpose of classification;
• choice of classification method;
• determination of classification characteristics;
• establishing a sequence of classification characteristics from more significant to less significant;
• determination of the number of classification levels (number of facets).

The number of characteristics and stages of classification depends on the complexity and number of objects being classified, and on the purposes of classification. Classification level- this is the stage of dividing a set into its constituent parts according to one of the characteristics. Classification depth characterized by the number of classification stages, i.e., the number of features used.

Classification method call a set of techniques (methods) for dividing a set of objects into subsets. There are two classification methods: facet and hierarchical. The division of a set of objects by each method is subject to certain rules. Classification methods and rules are classification system.

Facet classification method provides for the parallel division of many objects according to one characteristic into separate, independent groups - facets (from the French facette - facet of a polished stone) (Fig. 1).

Hierarchical

Faceted

The individual facets are independent and not subordinate to each other, but they are related by the fact that they belong to the same set. Each facet characterizes one of the sides of the distributed set. Thus, the facet classification system is a system of separate independent (not subordinate to each other) groupings.

The use of a facet system in many cases facilitates the compilation of classifiers and coding of classification objects.

Hierarchical classification method characterized by the sequential division of a given set of objects into subordinate subsets (Fig. 1). The hierarchical classification system is distinguished by its great harmony and the ability to group objects according to the maximum number of characteristics, but at the same time it creates many difficulties in its construction.

Comparative characteristics of hierarchical and facet classification methods

Mandatory rule of construction hierarchical classification is that objects at each level of classification are grouped only by one classification criterion. For example, it is impossible to simultaneously divide tableware into glass, tableware and enamel, and shoes into rubber, sports and varnished, since these groupings use several classification characteristics (material, purpose, nature of the coating).

Each classification method has its pros and cons. Therefore, in the practical solution of classification problems, it is most advisable to combine the advantages of both facet and hierarchical classification methods.

Main classification characteristics

The most important classification criteria of goods are the purpose, source materials (raw material composition), scope, method of production (technology features), features of origin, transportability, etc. These characteristics serve as the basis for combining (or separating) goods into separate categories(groups).

The purpose attribute determines the purpose of use of the product. It can be used at both higher and lower levels of classification (for example, food and non-food products). At the next stages of classification, this feature can be specified. Thus, knives that are included in the group of knife products along with scissors are divided according to their purpose into table knives, pantry knives, cabinet knives, utility knives, craft knives and folding knives.

Separation by type of raw material (materials) allows us to identify categories of goods with certain consumer properties. For example, shoes with soles made of genuine leather, shoes with rubber soles, shoes with uppers made of natural and artificial materials.

According to the composition of raw materials, sausages are classified into meat, offal and blood.

The division of goods based on design is typical for non-food products. So, depending on the design features washing machines can be drum and activator type.

For many groups of goods, the classification feature of dividing them according to the method of production is important. The production method predetermined the formation of such product groups as fabrics and knitted fabrics.

Classification characteristics close to the production method are the method of cultivation, processing method, and technology features. Food products are mainly classified according to these criteria. For example, according to the method of growing, vegetables are divided into ground, greenhouse, and greenhouse.

By origin they are of plant origin (fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, grains, etc.), animal origin (meat, fish, etc.), mineral origin (table salt), biosynthetic origin (vinegar).

Very often, goods are divided according to such criteria as shelf life and method of storage, transportability, etc. For example, depending on shelf life and quality, eggs are classified as dietary and table.

Classification features that are less common and not in all product groups include: gender and age division (for example, women's, men's, children's shoes); operating conditions (refrigerators for tropical and temperate climates); seasonality of use (winter, summer, demi-season, all-season clothing); dimensional characteristics (dimensions, dimensions); completeness (sets, devices, services, headsets); state of aggregation (solid and liquid soap); packaging method (packed caramel, weighted, piece), etc. Obviously, these classification criteria are preferable to use at lower levels of classification.

Classifications are divided into auxiliary and natural.

Auxiliarycalled classification, based in which signs that are not essential for the distinguished classes are placed.

Naturalis called a classification based on the essential for the distinguished classes signs.

Example . Let's consider the classification of the concept " book" You can find it in any library alphabetical catalog. It divides books into classes based on insignificant feature the first letters of the author's last name or book title. That's why, alphabetical catalog- This auxiliary classification.

Example . Natural The classification of books can be obtained as follows:

Books are divided into artistic, scientific And textbooks.

Artistic are divided into prosaic And poetic.

Scientific are divided into natural sciences, social scientific And humanitarian.

Textbooks are divided into textbooks for vocational education And .

Textbooks for vocational education are divided into textbooks for higher professional education And .

From this we get the following classification:

Books are divided into fiction prose, artistic poetic,natural sciences, social scientific, in humanities,textbooks for higher professional education, textbooks for secondary vocational education, textbooks for general education.

Auxiliary classifications are used to provide uniform access to subjects in various subject areas. Thus, books are classified alphabetically for any type of literature, regardless of their differences. Natural classification is adapted to the characteristics of a given type of object and uses characteristics that are essential for the identified types.

Chapter 6

JUDGMENT AND ITS TYPES

§ 1. General characteristics of judgment

Av: Do you remember what logical culture is?

Ss: Logical culture is the ability to think logically.

Av: Great idea! It has one big logical error and one deep idea.

St: A logical fallacy is a tautology. Violation of the no-circle rule. But a deep idea?

Av: Skill. Culture is a skill or, more precisely, a skill.

St: Yes, we already talked about this. A skill is an action that was initially conscious and then became semi- or completely unconscious.

Av: Correct. So, the definition and division of a concept is what allows us to express concepts in a clear and distinct form. And exercises give us the opportunity to gain skill in this useful activity. But concepts are not the only way to achieve the ability to clearly and distinctly express your thoughts. We already know that concepts are used as an integral part of other thoughts - judgments. Therefore, it is natural to assume that, in addition to the culture of using concepts, there is also a culture of using judgments.

SS: A culture of judgment? Interesting! I've never heard of her before!

Av: No wonder! In natural thinking, we get used to judging objects, especially other people, quickly and categorically. In a sense, this is the style of our thinking.

St: We now know that concepts must be formed correctly and acted upon correctly. What about judgments?

Av: The main thing in judgments is their truth or falsity.

Ss: Ah, it's very simple. I'm already familiar with these concepts. Truth is a correspondence with reality, and a lie, accordingly, is a discrepancy.

St: This is not a definition. This is a pun.

Av: No, this is, in principle, correct. Just very general. We will still have to specify these concepts of truth and falsity in relation to judgments of various forms. But the main problems arise when we begin to apply the concepts of truth and falsity. This is where it turns out that not everything is simple with them.

SS: What's so difficult about that? It corresponds, which means it is true; it does not correspond, which means it is false.

St: Yours is simple. Try to find out in each individual case whether it corresponds or not!

Av: That's right. But there are also other problems. Consider the following sentence in the box:

SS: So what? False, and God be with him!

St: Wait. Something is not so simple here.

Av: Let's check and speculate. Let's assume that this sentence is true. It follows that it is true. What does the sentence say? That it is false. Therefore, in reality it is false. It turns out that if this sentence is true, then it is false.

Ss: This is similar to the knights and knaves problems we solved before.

Av: Correct! But we will return to them later. Now suppose this sentence is false. Then it turns out that in reality the situation is not as stated in this sentence. And it says that it is false. Therefore it is true. It turns out that if this sentence is false, then it is true. And if we combine our reasoning together, it turns out that this proposition is true if and only if it is false!

Ss: This is complete nonsense! What nonsense!

Av: In this argument, I used a completely understandable, very simple sentence that speaks of its own falsity. And the definitions of truth and falsity that you yourself proposed are also simple and understandable.

St: Yes, everything seems so simple, but in reality it turns out to be confusing.

Ss: Yes, but still, why does such stupidity arise?

Av: Why is a difficult question. I won't answer it now. The reasoning I showed you is a modern form of the so-called liar paradox. It was invented by Eubulides more than 2000 years ago.

SS: People have known for 2000 years that the use of the concepts of truth and lies leads to stupidity - and nothing?

Av: Of course, this paradox has bothered philosophers. Many major thinkers studied it - Aristotle, Bertrand Russell, Alfred Tarski. The latter proposed a concept of truth free from paradoxes. But that's another, long story. We are still talking about basic things. For example, we can say that not every sentence expresses a proposition. But to do this, you need to understand what a judgment and a proposal are, how they relate to each other, and similar things.

St: So let's figure it out!

Av: First, let’s figure out what the words “true” and “false” refer to.

Ss: Of course, to suggestions!

Av: Take your time! Consider two sentences: “I told you about the liar paradox” and “The liar paradox was told to you by me.” These are different proposals. But they are true or false at the same time. You can even say that they are talking about the same thing.

St: So what?

Av: Like what? This means that truth and falsity do not relate to the sentences themselves, but to what is expressed in them, to what is expressed in both sentences.

St: What is this?

SS: I know! Thought!

Av: Every thought?

St: No, not every one. We already know that a concept is a thought, but a sentence does not express a thought of this kind.

Av: Correct. It follows that before answering the question: whether a given sentence expresses meaning or does not express it, you need to know what kind of thoughts can be expressed in a sentence and what their basic properties are. What do we call thoughts that are expressed or not expressed in sentences?

St: Well, now I guessed it too. Judgment.

Av: Correct again. Let's understand what a judgment is and how it relates to sentences.

In Chapter 4 we talked about concepts and their relationship to language. Then we talked about names (proper and common), their meaning and significance. In tripartite semantics, proposed by the German logician Gottlob Frege, all linguistic signs have meaning and significance. If we consider a sentence as a sign, then it must also have meaning and meaning.

What is the meaning and meaning of a sentence? An analogy with a name and a concept will help us answer this question. The name is sign, the concept is thought associated with this sign. Hence, the meaning of the sentence must also be the thought associated with this sign. We already know from the previous dialogue that such a thought is a judgment. What then is the meaning of a sentence? This question is more complex, because the sentence does not denote any object, but expresses something about objects. Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is considered to be a situation that may or may not occur in reality. But for the logic that we are studying, it is quite enough to accept the following agreement: we will consider the two most important situations to be the meaning of a sentence: the truth or lie. So, to our question we received the following answer:

However, can a proposition, which can be true or false, be said to be the meaning of any sentence? Let's look at four proposals:

(A) Napoleon is a great man.

(b) Napoleon was not a great man.

(V) Become Napoleon!

(G) Do you want to be Napoleon?

It can be said right away that we do not usually evaluate sentences (c) and (d) as true and false. Sentence (c) expresses a demand, a desire for some situation to occur, and sentence (d) expresses a desire to receive some information. In themselves they cannot be true or false. Therefore, we can now say that they are not expressing judgments.

Only sentences (a) and (b) remain. They can definitely be true or false, that is, they express judgments. sentences (a) and (b) are declarative sentences. Therefore, we can say that a judgment is not the meaning of every sentence, but only of a declarative sentence.

Judgment is expressed in language usingnarrativeproposals.

So far we have analyzed the relationship between thought (judgment) and language (sentence). Now it's time to answer the question: what is judgment?

The given examples of judgments (a) and (b) tell us that in the judgment there is something about something approved or denied, but what and about what? To answer this question, we will have to recall our logical ontology, according to which the world consists of objects, properties and relationships. And the presence or absence of properties or relations is called signs (cf. § 2 of Chapter 2). This ontology immediately suggests the answer we need: the connection between the attribute and the object is affirmed or denied. Indeed, in the judgment expressed by the sentence “ Napoleon is a great man"(in the future, for simplicity, we will simply say “in judgment,” although this is not entirely accurate), the sign be a great man attributed to the subject - Napoleon, and in the judgment " Napoleon was not a great man“The connection between the feature we are interested in and the object is denied. The above examples convey well what happens both in the simplest form of judgment and in fairly complex judgments, which ultimately come down to a combination of acts of attributing attributes to objects or, conversely, denying the connection of attributes with objects.

However, we know that features may or may not be inherent not only in objects, but also in properties, relations and sets, i.e. everything that we called objects. This gives us the following definition of the concept of judgment:

Judgment- is a thought that states or The connection between objects and signs is denied.

Returning to our dialogue about thoughts (§ 1 of Chapter 2), we can now say that with the linguistic construction “ think that..." is related to the type of thought we called judgment. When we say: " I think the Internet makes it easier for people to connect" or " I think the Internet is not a replacement for human communication", then after the word " What" should just declarative sentence expressing a judgment. In this case, our thought is directed to a certain situation that, in our opinion, takes place in reality (as in the first phrase) or does not take place in reality (as in the second phrase). In the first case, I recognize the connection between the subject " Internet" and the sign " facilitate contacts between people" In the second case, I refuse to recognize the connection between the subject " Internet" and the sign " be a substitute for human communication" This recognition or non-recognition of the connection between objects and features (situations) is expressed in acts of affirmation or denial.

Thus, our discussion shows that there are two types of thoughts: concepts and judgments, and they differ according to the direction of thought. Concepts are aimed at objects, and judgments are aimed at situations.

Judgment and concept are similar in that both are thought, in both we are talking about objects And signs. They differ in that the concept highlights and summarizes objects using signs. Judgment does not single out or generalize. True, concepts are used in judgment, but they are used in order to affirm or deny connection between them. The judgment says that the state of the world is such that a given attribute is inherent in a given object or, conversely, is not inherent in a given object.

However, the world does not always meet our expectations. The situation described in the judgment may or may not occur in the world, which means that the judgment may be true or false.

In our logic course we will assume that every proposition is either true or false. In logic this position is called principle of ambiguity. Of course, in the practice of cognition we may not know whether a judgment is true or false. Thus, even in mathematics there are propositions, for example, Fermat’s theorem, which are still not known whether they are true or false.

To master such situations of uncertainty, logic has come up with logical systems in which there are more than two truth values. For example, a third meaning “uncertain” is introduced, corresponding to our ignorance of the truth or falsity of a judgment. On this basis grew the so-called multivalued logics. Moreover, there are such judgments regarding which it is fundamentally impossible to establish by rational methods whether they are true or false. These are propositions whose truth or falsity can be recognized only on the basis of faith, for example, “God exists.”

Thus, the main characteristic of a judgment is its truth or falsity. Therefore, we must clearly define what is true and what is false.

However, in ordinary life, scientific and pedagogical practice, we are not interested in the concepts of truth or falsity in general, but in the truth or falsity of specific judgments. We are interested in whether propositions are true " Mr. M. is a kind man», « The train to Svetlogorsk leaves from the Northern Station at 8.08», « God exists" Logic, of course, cannot answer these specific questions. But it can set some general truth conditions for various types of propositions. To do this, we need to find out what types of judgments there are and what the different types of judgments consist of.

One of the special types of division is classification. This is a systematic, consistent division of concepts with the distribution of types into an interdependent system, within which the latter are divided into subspecies, subspecies are also divided into division members, etc.

The classification has great value and is used mostly for the purposes of science and it is precisely because of this that it exists long time. Classifications, often used in science, are subject to changes and additions, but despite this, they are more constant than simple division. The purpose of classification is to systematize and preserve knowledge. Therefore, it has high precision, clarity and stability. Division members are usually reflected in various kinds of tables, diagrams and codes.

There are classifications of plants, animals, legal classifications. Often classifications include huge amount elements. Within the framework of the classification, these elements are combined into a single system, which makes access to its individual parts and elements convenient and quick. The lack of classification would lead to chaos in a large amount of unsystematized information.

It is impossible not to note the relativity of any classification, which is associated with the ambiguity of many objects, phenomena, and processes. Therefore, it is often not possible to classify a particular phenomenon into one group. From the question of the ambiguity of phenomena arises the problem of choosing a basis for classification. The same concept can, depending on the chosen basis, express different objects, phenomena or be interpreted from one side or another.

Scientific classification is always an evolving system. It changes, and as information accumulates, its structure improves. It happens that a new, more complete and developed classification replaces the previous one. Therefore, it is impossible to limit operations on classifications to their formation alone. It is necessary to take into account changes in the body of knowledge about a subject, the dynamics of social relations, and many other factors, since any information, including that fixed within the framework of various classifications, is obtained by a person exclusively from the surrounding world. Accordingly, it is necessary to make the necessary changes in a timely manner.

An example of an ambiguous phenomenon is the family. Despite the fact that this institution is called social, limit it to only one or two areas social life impossible.

Classification can be carried out according to a species-forming characteristic, or it can be dichotomous. The classification of animals, numbering more than one and a half million species, is obviously based on the use of a species-forming character. Dichotomous classification is based on the features of the dichotomous division of concepts.

Classification also happens natural And auxiliary. The difference between them is that the first is carried out on essential grounds, while the second - on non-essential ones. Natural classification allows you to determine the properties of an individual classification element, knowing the general characteristics of this classification or another element. Auxiliary classification is needed so that you can quickly and correctly solve emerging problems. This requires prompt, quick access to one or another classification element. Convenient search and selection of the desired item often serves as the basis for effective activities. It is the achievement of the goals of efficiency, speed and convenience that determines the use of non-essential grounds. Such a classification does not give us any idea about the properties of the object. We are all familiar with such classifications. There are many of them and they are widely used in human life. How often do we take a notebook with phone numbers marked alphabetically by the names of friends we know? This is an auxiliary classification. Having picked up a book dedicated to a particular subject of science, first of all we open the alphabetical subject index. This is also an auxiliary classification.

When creating classifications, operations on classes are used. They allow you to achieve the desired result and obtain the classification that is necessary in at the moment. The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and negation are distinguished.

Addition(merging classes). When using this operation, several groups (classes) are combined into one classification containing all the elements of those classes that are combined.

Subtraction distinguishes separate classes from a larger class. The result is a class from which the elements of the selected class have been removed.

Multiplication(class intersection). There is a class of elements that are common to several classes. They are determined using the multiplication operation.

Negation(education, addition). With this operation new class objects are removed from a more general class and considered separately, as new.