They are classified into different types. Types of classification. Natural and artificial classification. Classification of computer documents

Different types of classifications

According to the biological nature of the pathogen All infectious diseases are divided into infections:

For bacterial;

• viral;
• fungal;
• protozoans.

According to the number of pathogens causing an infectious disease,

they share:

• for monoinfections;
• mixed (associated) - mixed infections.

It is necessary to distinguish from the latter a secondary infection, in which the main, initial, already developed one is joined by another, caused by a new pathogen; although in some cases the secondary infection may exceed, and significantly, the primary infection. By duration infectious diseases are divided into:

• for sharp ones;
• chronic.

By origin of the pathogen:

• exogenous - infections caused by microorganisms coming from environment with food, water, air, soil, secretions of a sick person or microbial carrier;
• endogenous - the causative agents are microorganisms - representatives of a person’s own normal microflora (often occur against the background of a person’s immunodeficiency state); including autoinfection - a type of endogenous infection that occurs as a result of self-propagation by transferring the pathogen from one biotope to another (for example, from the mouth or nose with the hands of the patient himself to the wound surface).

Classification depending on the pathogen reservoir

Division of infections depending on the source, i.e., reservoir of the pathogen, quite conditionally, but on this basis several groups can be distinguished:

- sapronotic infections - diseases, the main habitat and reproduction of pathogens of which are environmental objects, from where they enter the human body (diseases caused by Legionella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, etc.);

— anthroponotic infections - diseases in which the only source of the pathogen is humans (meningococcal infection, dysentery, cholera, diphtheria, syphilis, hepatitis B, epidemic typhus, epidemic relapsing fever, etc.);

— zoonotic infections - diseases in which the only source of the pathogen is animals (tularemia, brucellosis, rabies);

Zooanthroponotic infections are diseases in which the source is an animal and a sick person, including the corpses of the dead (plague, anthrax, tuberculosis, rickettsiosis).

Classification by prevalence

By prevalence distinguish:

• endemic diseases - registered in strictly defined territories); are closely related to the habitat (habitat) of animals - hosts and carriers. These include:
• endemic rickettsioses;
• tick-borne relapsing fever (borreliosis);
• tick-borne viral encephalitis;
• epidemic diseases - common in various territories.

Besides, to characterize the prevalence of a particular infectious disease (number of cases per 100,000 inhabitants) the following concepts exist:

• “sporadic incidence” - when only isolated cases of the disease are recorded,
• “cluster outbreaks” - limited to a small number of cases,
• “epidemic” - the number of sick people is measured in several hundreds or thousands, i.e. it can cover a large number of people over a large territory (influenza, epidemic louse-borne typhus),
• “pandemic” - a disease covers several countries and even continents. The most widely known are the cholera, plague, and influenza pandemics that have accompanied humanity throughout its history.

According to severity All infectious diseases are divided into:

- on the lungs;

- moderate severity;

- heavy.

Severity of infectious disease has a direct dependence on the virulence of the pathogen microorganism and

inverse dependence on the strength of the protective mechanisms of the macroorganism.

The severity of an infectious disease is also directly related to localization of the pathogen in the macroorganism- according to this criterion, all infections are divided:

• to focal ones, in which microorganisms are localized in a local focus and do not spread throughout the body (tonsillitis, furunculosis);
• generalized, in which the pathogen spreads throughout the body by lymphogenous or hematogenous routes (sepsis). The most severe form of generalized infection is sepsis, which is characterized by the proliferation of the pathogen in the blood, usually with a severe course of the disease, as it almost always develops against the background of a sharp inhibition of the main defense mechanisms.

Sepsis differs from bacteremia in that with bacteremia, the blood performs only a transport role, and the pathogen does not multiply in it, as in sepsis. With sepsis, as a rule, secondary foci of purulent inflammation occur in the organs. This condition is often called septicopyemia.

With the development of a generalized form of infection, a massive entry into the blood of bacteria and their toxins may occur - as a result, toxic-septic or bacterial shock often develops, causing death in a fairly short time.

It is known that the vast majority of microorganisms cannot cause infection.

According to the ability to cause infection microorganisms are divided into 3 groups:

• saprophytes- microorganisms that are unable to cause infection;
• pathogenic microorganisms- always cause infection;
• conditionally pathogenic microorganisms- capable of causing infection, but only under certain conditions, and primarily when the antimicrobial resistance of the macroorganism decreases.

Pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms, unlike saprophytes, have pathogenicity, i.e., a potential, genetically determined ability to penetrate the macroorganism, multiply in it and cause a response from the body. Pathogenicity is a persistent species characteristic, i.e., a characteristic inherent in all bacteria of a given species; quality characteristic.

Classification is a logical process of distributing any set (concepts, properties, phenomena, objects) into categories (subsets) of different levels depending on certain characteristics and selected methods of division.

Classification object

According to the trade classification, the following groups of food products are distinguished: bakery products, fruits and vegetables, confectionery, dairy and butter, and sausages, eggs, edible fats, tobacco products.

Food products are divided into grocery and gastronomic. Groceries include cereals, flour, yeast, pasta, dried vegetables and fruits, coffee, salt, spices, sugar, starch, food concentrates and others, i.e. products that require additional cooking before consumption. Gastronomic products include ready-to-eat products without cooking or with enhanced taste properties: (cheeses, butter, milk, etc.), alcoholic beverages, smoked and canned goods, confectionery, meat and fish products.

Non-food products according to trading system classifications are divided into the following product groups: household and haberdashery goods (textiles, leather, metal haberdashery); household chemical products (adhesives, etc.); (dishes, sheet glass, lamp products); (porcelain, earthenware, majolica dishes, pottery, artistic and decorative items); building materials (binding substances, metal, ceramic and other materials); furniture products (wooden furniture, etc.); metal goods (dishes, cutlery, hardware and locks, tools, etc.); (wires and cords, installation products, electric lamps, electric heating devices, household machines, electrical measuring instruments); textile goods (fabrics, non-woven materials, piece goods); sewing goods (outerwear, ready-made dresses, underwear, hats); knitted goods (outer and underwear knitwear, hosiery and gloves, etc.); (leather, rubber and felted shoes); (fur semi-finished products, fur and sheepskin fur products); jewelry and watches; paper and products made from it, school writing supplies and stationery, musical, photographic and household radio-electronic equipment, toys, sporting goods. A separate group consists of books and other printed publications.

These groups are sometimes combined or, conversely, disaggregated. Thus, glass, ceramic and metal goods are combined into the group of household goods.

Educational classification

Educational classification used in the practice of teaching merchandising, it serves to study the consumer properties of goods, reveals general principles formation and preservation of these properties allows you to most fully study the range of products.

The training classification is close to the trade classification, but is more consistent. In educational classifications aimed at studying the range of goods, the most important feature is the purpose.

In accordance with the educational classification, goods are also divided into two sections: food and non-food.

According to the educational classification, all food products are combined into 9 main groups: grain and flour products; vegetables, fruits and mushrooms; flavoring goods; confectionery products; edible fats; dairy products; meat products; fishery products; eggs and egg products.

This classification is based on the common origin of goods, chemical composition, features of production technology, purpose and storage conditions.

In accordance with the educational classification, all non-food products are divided into the following groups: plastics and household chemicals; metal goods; silicate products; wood and furniture products; electrical goods; textile goods; sewing and knitted goods; leather and footwear goods; fur goods; perfumes and cosmetics, jewelry; electronic goods; toys, printed materials, etc.

Economic-statistical classification

Economic-statistical classification considered the most complete. It is presented in All-Russian classifier products OK 005-93 (OKP). OKP is intended to ensure reliability, comparability and automated processing of information about products in such areas as standardization, certification, quality management, production, statistics, economics and others.

Each OKP position contains a six-digit digital code, a single-digit control number and the name of the product group, which are written in the following form:

CC code Name

815320 3 Special braided cords

The OKP provides for a 5-stage hierarchical classification with a digital decimal coding system. At each level of classification, division is carried out according to the most significant economic and technical classification criteria.

At the first stage of classification there are product classes (XX 000), at the second - subclasses (XX ХХОО), at the third - groups (XX ХХОО), at the fourth - subgroups
(XX ХХХО) and on the fifth - types of products (XX ХХХХ).

Codes of 2 - 5-digit product groupings are padded with zeros to 6 digits and are written with an interval between the second and third digits.

Product classification in OKP can be completed at the third, fourth or fifth stages of the classification division.

For unambiguous understanding and delimitation of the scope of concepts used individual items OKP include explanations. Explanations are given directly below the name of the item to which they relate.

Explanations are provided to exclude the possibility of an object included in another position being included in a given position of the classifier, for the purpose of a uniform understanding by specialists of individual words or phrases as part of the name of a position if it is necessary to clarify the scope of application of this position or if it is necessary to list objects that may be included in this position .

For example:

58 5300 4 Culvert parts

Explanation: including bottom slabs, slab blocks, caps.

The use of this classifier in the practice of trade and commodity science is difficult, since the grouping of products does not coincide with either the trade or educational classification of goods. The same product groups in OKP are included in different classes, since they are produced by different industries. Thus, household goods are included in dozens of classes and subclasses of products that have different code designations. Thus, the OKP classifier does not reflect many of the characteristics of goods and trade interests; in particular, it does not take into account the consumer properties of goods.

Standard classification

In merchandising it is possible to use standard classification, presented in state and industry standards.

The standard classification is used to determine requirements, nomenclature of quality indicators, test conditions and methods, quality control, to develop procedures, etc. This classification system is reflected in the All-Russian Classifier of Standards (OKS).

The main classification features underlying the division of goods in accordance with the standard classification are industry and purpose. Classification based on purpose is fixed in state standards the fourth system, called the quality indicator system. For example, knitted goods according to this classification system are divided into outerwear, linen, hosiery and gloves.

Foreign economic classification

Foreign economic classification began to be used in Russia relatively recently. This classification was developed on the basis of the Harmonized System of Description and Coding of Goods (HS) and the Combined Tariff and Statistical Nomenclature of the European Economic Community (CN EEC). It is reflected in the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity (TN FEA) and serves as the basis for regulating foreign economic activity. The foreign economic classification has been agreed upon with international organizations and systematizes all goods that are the subject of international trade.

In the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, all goods are clearly assigned to certain classification groups. Explanations for each classification group are contained in the Notes to sections, groups, specific product items and in the Basic Rules for the Interpretation of the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, which have legal force.

Correct determination of the position of goods in the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS is crucial for analyzing the activities of firms and enterprises, regulating production and trade, quantitative and qualitative assessment of goods, insurance, determining rates of customs duties and other payments, developing a regime for the export-import of certain goods, comparison data on foreign trade of various countries and conducting economic and statistical analysis to compare prices for goods.

In the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the CIS, goods are coded using a ten-digit digital code, the first six digits of which correspond to the code designation adopted in the HS coding system. The same six digits, plus the seventh and eighth, form the product code according to the Unified Economic System Code. The ninth and tenth categories are intended to detail certain commodity items, taking into account the interests of Russia and other members of the commonwealth. While the tenth digit has a zero code.

A significant drawback of the foreign economic classification system is its difficulty in use: special knowledge is required to determine the position of the product and its code.

General rules and methods of classification

Classification allows you to divide goods into certain categories or levels in accordance with the accepted classification method. The division is carried out from the highest level of classification to the lowest. The number of classification stages depends on its goals, objectives, complexity and number of classified objects.

The highest levels of classification are section and class. The middle stages of classification are group and species. After the “type” there are lower levels of classification, which include: variety, article. When classifying, auxiliary categories are also used: subsection, subclass, subgroup, etc.

View- this is the main classification characteristic of goods. It represents the final product of production, has a specific purpose and its own name, which reflects its external feature or internal content. For example, glass, sofa, chintz, apple, cod belong to the species category. But dishes, furniture, fabrics, fruits and fish do not belong to this category, since they combine several types.

General rules for constructing a classification should be considered:

• establishing the purpose of classification;
• choice of classification method;
• determination of classification characteristics;
• establishing a sequence of classification characteristics from more significant to less significant;
• determination of the number of classification levels (number of facets).

The number of characteristics and stages of classification depends on the complexity and number of objects being classified, and on the purposes of classification. Classification level- this is the stage of dividing a set into its constituent parts according to one of the characteristics. Classification depth characterized by the number of classification stages, i.e., the number of features used.

Classification method call a set of techniques (methods) for dividing a set of objects into subsets. There are two classification methods: facet and hierarchical. The division of a set of objects by each method is subject to certain rules. Classification methods and rules are classification system.

Facet classification method provides for the parallel division of many objects according to one characteristic into separate, independent groups - facets (from the French facette - facet of a polished stone) (Fig. 1).

Hierarchical

Faceted

The individual facets are independent and not subordinate to each other, but they are related by the fact that they belong to the same set. Each facet characterizes one of the sides of the distributed set. Thus, the facet classification system is a system of separate independent (not subordinate to each other) groupings.

The use of a facet system in many cases facilitates the compilation of classifiers and coding of classification objects.

Hierarchical classification method characterized by the sequential division of a given set of objects into subordinate subsets (Fig. 1). The hierarchical classification system is distinguished by its great harmony and the ability to group objects according to the maximum number of characteristics, but at the same time it creates many difficulties in its construction.

Comparative characteristics of hierarchical and facet classification methods

A mandatory rule for constructing a hierarchical classification is that objects at each level of classification are grouped only by one classification criterion. For example, it is impossible to simultaneously divide tableware into glass, tableware and enamel, and shoes into rubber, sports and varnished, since these groupings use several classification characteristics (material, purpose, nature of the coating).

Each classification method has its pros and cons. Therefore, in the practical solution of classification problems, it is most advisable to combine the advantages of both facet and hierarchical methods classifications.

Main classification characteristics

The most important classification criteria of goods are the purpose, source materials (raw material composition), scope, method of production (technology features), features of origin, transportability, etc. These characteristics serve as the basis for combining (or separating) goods into separate categories(groups).

The purpose attribute determines the purpose of use of the product. It can be used at both higher and lower levels of classification (for example, food and non-food products). At the next stages of classification, this feature can be specified. Thus, knives that are included in the group of knife products along with scissors are divided according to their purpose into table knives, pantry knives, cabinet knives, utility knives, craft knives and folding knives.

Separation by type of raw material (materials) allows us to identify categories of goods with certain consumer properties. For example, shoes with soles made of genuine leather, shoes with rubber soles, shoes with uppers made of natural and artificial materials.

According to the composition of raw materials, sausages are classified into meat, offal and blood.

The division of goods based on design is typical for non-food products. So, depending on the design features washing machines can be drum and activator type.

For many groups of goods, the classification feature of dividing them according to the method of production is important. The production method predetermined the formation of such product groups as fabrics and knitted fabrics.

Classification characteristics close to the production method are the method of cultivation, processing method, and technology features. Food products are mainly classified according to these criteria. For example, according to the method of growing, vegetables are divided into ground, greenhouse, and greenhouse.

By origin they are of plant origin (fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, grains, etc.), animal origin (meat, fish, etc.), mineral origin (table salt), biosynthetic origin (vinegar).

Very often, goods are divided according to such criteria as shelf life and method of storage, transportability, etc. For example, depending on shelf life and quality, eggs are classified as dietary and table.

Classification features that are less common and not in all product groups include: gender and age division (for example, women's, men's, children's shoes); operating conditions (refrigerators for tropical and temperate climates); seasonality of use (winter, summer, demi-season, all-season clothing); dimensional characteristics (dimensions, dimensions); completeness (sets, devices, services, headsets); state of aggregation (solid and liquid soap); packaging method (packed caramel, weighted, piece), etc. Obviously, these classification criteria are preferable to use at lower levels of classification.

In almost any field of activity, a person is faced with the concept of classification, which is used to establish the order of phenomena, objects, etc. Classification, or, as it is often called, classification, is simply necessary for the logical distribution of the scope of a concept into separate varieties. Let's consider what classification is and why it is needed.

Basic definition of classification

Literally translated from Latin, the concept is defined as “to make a discharge.” Thus, it is clear that “classify” means “to subdivide,” “to order, to divide into categories.” A striking example of classification can be called the division in the animal world of classes into species, species into subspecies, etc. At the same time specific types, forming a class, have common characteristic features, according to which they are considered varieties of the latter.

Types of classification and why they are needed

There are two main types of classification - natural and artificial. In the first case, the division is based on essential features and is aimed at identifying the main similarities and differences between objects/phenomena. This classification has educational value.

Typology can be called its synonym, since this type is based on the concept of type as a unit of division. This helps to get a complete picture of a phenomenon or species and reveal it as much as possible. After all, the conventionality and relativity of the boundaries between subspecies requires clarification. In this case, classification helps to outline more realistic boundaries.

The second type is called artificial, because it is based not on identifying the main features, but on the selection of specific features that are convenient in certain cases. A synonym for this classification can be called systematization. A striking example of this is alphabetical catalogs.

Often objects of classification have two or more equivalent characteristics, criteria, the joint action of which determines the variety of properties and distinctive features of phenomena. In this case, it is built combinative classification. It is a multidimensional matrix. An example is a matrix of management styles, built on a comparison in the activities of a manager of signs of his attitude towards people and production, assessing the predominance of one sign over another.

The types of classification are decomposition and stratification.

Decomposition – This is a special type of classification that does not allow arbitrary criteria and is intended to establish interrelated substantive elements of some objective integrity.

Stratification – this is the definition of layers (strata) in a multilayer phenomenon, i.e. dependencies of a special type. In the study of situations, such strata can be the external and internal environment, technical means and human resources, management strategy and tactics, etc.

Rules for successfully using classification in research

1. Rule of adequacy. The classification is considered proportionate when the sum of the division terms is equal to the divisible set. Each object belonging to a divisible set must be included in one of the formed classes. Violation of this rule results in incomplete division and, therefore, distorts the understanding of the subject of research.

2. The rule of out-of-position (volumetric separation) of division members. The classes obtained as a result of division must be represented by external concepts, i.e. there should not be a single object of the divisible set that simultaneously belongs to several members of the division. Errors arise due to the mixing of various bases and division criteria in one classification operation.

3. During a certain classification operation the base of division cannot be changed, his criterion. Substitution of criteria within the same classification procedure is unacceptable, as well as vagueness of the criterion.

4. The basis of division, or criteria, can be not only simple, but also complex, including simultaneously several parameters of the object under study.

Sometimes one or another characteristic exists in many objects, but varies in different degrees or forms in each.

In management research great value has a combinative classification method.

When carrying out classification, often the objects of classification

may have several equally significant features that can be the basis for classification. In this case, it is possible to combine two hierarchical classifications by constructing a matrix. This will be a combinatorial classification.

This type of classification is often used in management research, and it can be very useful because it allows you to look at the problem from different angles, from different angles, and find a comprehensive solution.

Division according to a modified characteristic is called dichotomy. The simplest version of the dichotomy, often used in research practice, is a division into two: formal and informal management, differentiation and integration of management, etc.