Basic polos. Basic provisions for the approval of vehicles for operation and the responsibilities of officials to ensure road safety. How to formulate the main points of a dissertation

Dictionary Ozhegova.

position

Efremova T.F. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language.

position

S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language.

position

The word “system” has become a favorite (and therefore hackneyed) in the speeches of all lovers of tribunes and meetings, so its exact meaning has long been blurred (which is easy to verify by asking any eloquent speaker to say what he means by this term). There are more than forty definitions of this term in the literature, each of which is focused on a particular area of ​​knowledge. One of the founders general theory systems L. Bertalanffy gave very short definition: “A system is a complex of interacting elements,” from which two main features of the system follow:

1) the system consists of fractional parts (elements);

2) these elements are not a random collection, a neighborhood, but somehow interact with each other, i.e. there are certain connections between them.

If this brief definition is slightly expanded taking into account the named characteristics, then a fairly workable formula will be obtained: “A system is a set of elements ordered in a certain way, interconnected and forming some kind of integral unity.” An important addition to this definition is the remark that any system is an element of a system more high order(supersystem), and its elements, in turn, usually act as lower order systems (subsystems).

The system is characterized by the composition of elements, structure and performs a specific function.

Elements - these are relatively indivisible parts of a whole, objects or operations that together form a system. An element is considered indivisible within the limits of maintaining a certain quality of the system. For example, in a microcalculator, the power supply is an element that can be considered as an indivisible whole, since the fact that the power supply has a complex structure and itself consists of many parts is of very little significance for the microcalculator system. Another example is the accounting of an enterprise. If an enterprise is considered as a system, then accounting is an element of this system, which to a certain extent can be represented as an indivisible whole that provides a certain part of the life of the enterprise. An example from another area is integration. Within the framework of the educational course “mathematical analysis”, this section is a closed part of the whole, which is studied precisely as an element of the course, but at the same time it is a branched independent discipline, including many subsections, rules and procedures.

Structure- these are natural, stable connections between the elements of the system, reflecting the spatial and temporal location of the elements and the nature of their interaction. It is the structure that makes the system a certain qualitatively defined whole, since the structure presupposes the interaction of elements with each other in different ways, highlighting certain aspects and properties of the elements. Structure is the most important characteristic of a system, since with the same composition of elements, but with different interactions between them, both the purpose of the system and its capabilities change. To confirm this, Fig. Figure 12 shows an example of a pair of different systems built from the same elements.

Rice. 12

Another typical example is in the poem by S.Ya. Marshak “The Miller, the Boy and the Donkey”, where the mentioned trio, on the way home, created different systems from the same elements listed in the title, but could not please the public, and it all ended this, if you remember, is like this:

Ugh! - the people at the gate laugh:
- The old donkey is lucky for the young!

Function - this is the external manifestation of the properties of an object (system or its element) in a given system of relations, a certain way of interaction of an object with the environment. Most often, functions appear in the form of actions and reflect the capabilities of the system.

For example, the function of a commodity exchange as a system is to provide clients with the opportunity to buy or sell goods without wasting extra time on searching for a counterparty. The function of the broker as an element of this system is to search for a counterparty in accordance with the client’s request. Another example: the functions of a turnstile at the entrance of an enterprise are to exclude the possibility of uncontrolled passage into the territory and to ensure the possibility of sequential control of those passing by. Another example: the function of a store window is to show products to a potential buyer.

It should be noted that most systems or their elements perform not one, but several functions. At the same time, from the entire list of functions of an object, it is always possible to single out one (less often, two) its most important function in a given system of relations. This function is called main useful function (GPF) object and, as a rule, corresponds to the original purpose of creating or using the object. Indeed, if I took a stick in my hand when an angry dog ​​appeared nearby, then the GPF of the stick is to protect my trousers and legs from damage by its teeth, but if I took the same stick to repair a hole in the fence, then the GPF of this stick is completely different - block access through the hole for uninvited two-legged and four-legged visitors. The structural elements of the system should be distinguished from subsystems, which are parts of the system. A subsystem is usually a group of elements separated by functional characteristics. Sometimes a subsystem contains only one element; on the other hand, the same element can be included in several subsystems at once. In the table Fig. 13 shows examples of such “many faces”.

Rice. 13. Examples of systems and their composition.

The details of the second and third columns of this table may seem questionable or incomplete to the reader. In this case, try to determine both the list of elements and the list of subsystems for doubtful cases. Later we will return to this issue and explain the reasons for these doubts, but for now we will continue to get acquainted with the basic definitions.

All systems, regardless of their nature, have a number of common properties.

Integrity system means that a complex of objects considered as a system has general properties, function and behavior, and the properties of the system are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements.

Divisibility system reflects the fact that any object can be represented as consisting of elements. In accordance with this any object must be considered in three aspects: as something whole (system), as part of a larger common system(supersystems) and as a collection of smaller parts (subsystems). The ability to always imagine these three (at least!) floors is the cornerstone, the main characteristic of the systems approach.

Any component of the system can be identified and considered separately, in isolation. However, this isolation is relative, since it is always necessary to remember that the interaction between the selected part and its environment in the system to one degree or another affects the behavior and properties of this selected part.

It is this property - divisibility - that makes it possible to simplify the study and transformation of even very complex systems, without missing anything essential.

To give an idea of ​​the generality of the systems approach, examples of systems and some elements of these systems are given below.

It is clear that with such a variety of systems it is impossible to do without their classification. Indeed, there are many classifications of systems. For example, systems can be classified according to the following criteria:

1) by origin (natural, artificial),

2) by type of elements (abstract, concrete),

3) by type of elements (material object, process, information block),

4) by state (static, dynamic),

5) through connections with the environment (open, closed).

Now the most important thing for us is the division of systems into natural (arising and existing independently of man and his will) and artificial (created by man consciously to directly or indirectly satisfy any of his needs). We will focus on artificial systems because of their diversity, relevance for humans, and, oddly enough, insufficient degree of knowledge (and they are the work of man himself!), and, finally, their importance for human success - all this provides sufficient grounds for our choice.

Artificial systems, in turn, can be divided into several classes, each of which concerns humans in its own way. These are the classes:

1. Technical systems (machines, devices, devices, technologies, etc.),

2. Social systems (state, city, trade union, elections, etc.),

3. Information systems (science, communications, press, education, etc.),

4. Cultural systems (philosophy, theater, ethics, painting, etc.)

Already this classification gives an answer to the question about the reasons for the reader’s doubts about the correctness of the contents of the table Fig. 13. The fact is that the creations of human hands are inevitably built into not one, but several supersystems, and in each of them both the environment of our system and the principles of its “detailing” are different. For example, is a TV a technical system? Yes, sure. This information system? Perhaps not in its pure form, but it is part of the information communication supersystem. Is this a social system? No, but in the social supersystem “city” it has a certain place. However, television can be considered both as an independent information system (we will do this below) and as an element of the cultural supersystem “television” (note that the supersystem “television” also exists in the social sphere, but this is a completely different supersystem!). And of course, in each of the above-mentioned supersystems, the main, most significant from the point of view of the role of the TV in the supersystem will be its completely different properties and elements.

Another example is the currency exchange. Is this a technical system? No, of course, but in the currency exchange itself there are many technical systems (building structures, technical life support equipment: lighting, heating, ventilation, etc.). Is this a social system? Of course, it is too strongly connected with social processes in society, as well as with other social structures. Is this an information system? Of course, it itself is stuffed with information subsystems, and its external connections are almost exclusively informational. Is this a cultural system? In general, probably not, but the influence of its presence and functioning on the worldview, ethical principles and norms is quite significant, i.e. it is in one way or another connected with cultural systems.

Exercises:

1. Characterize the objects listed below as systems from the point of view of their origin, type, species, state, connections with the environment and class (the latter - only for artificial systems): a) glove, b) garden strawberry, c) wind, d) lymph , e) flock, f) meeting, g) law, h) conscience, i) book, j) pond, k) cobblestone, m) holiday, n) education, o) harbor.

2. Define elemental composition the following systems: a) cloud, b) task, c) shareholders meeting, d) vineyard, e) working day, f) lie, g) anthill, h) nut, i) desk, j) boots.

3. What functions do the following systems perform: a) village street, b) cash register, c) family, d) river bed, e) camel, f) sail, g) garden bed, h) hole?. Which of these functions are most important and which are secondary?

3.2. System representation of an object

The first step of system analysis is representation of the object under study in the form of a system. For an artificial system, this step comes down to identifying and verbally defining the following concepts:

a) the supersystem that the object belongs to,

b) the main useful function of the object,

c) a list of object subsystems,

d) structure of the system.

The simplicity of the wording of this first step does not mean that it is easy to implement. An insidious false trail awaits an inexperienced analyst already at the first stage - the stage of determining the supersystem. Too often, instead of a supersystem, one wants to name only a generalized definition of the original object, and this error leads to a dead end, which is felt by an inexperienced analyst only at the next steps of system analysis. Test yourself and try, as an exercise for the examples given in the table, to choose a supersystem from several proposed ones (and maybe not only from those proposed). The material in section 2.2 will help you with this, where to distinguish the “inseparable” four logical operators auxiliary test questions are used.

In this case, this method is implemented like this. To check the correctness of the supersystem definition, you can use two rules:

1) Ask yourself: "Is it?". The correct answer is "No, it isn't"(otherwise there is no connection, but generalization original concept).

2) Check if the question sounds correct: "What function does it serve?"

By the way, the second question, if it turns out to be correct, immediately leads to the answer about main useful function our system.

Further implementation of the first step of system analysis (defining subsystems and structure), as a rule, does not cause difficulties, but often turns out to be incomplete. However, this incompleteness is not fatal and should not particularly worry the analyst, because at the next step it will inevitably be revealed and corrected.

After these initial concepts about systems analysis, it is useful to practice and consolidate what you read not only with knowledge, but also with the ability to apply this knowledge.

Exercises:

1. Present as a system 2-3 objects from among the following: pencil, lampshade, cash register, ammeter, foundry site, city, fence, river, flock, chemist’s reference book, potato storage, IBM PC, payment order, futures contract, entrance, ear, screwdriver, virus, guitar playing technique.

2. From the same set of 3-4 elements, construct at least two different systems. Graphically depict the structure of each system (if possible, like Fig. 12)

3. Determine which of the proposed systems are natural and which are artificial: state, nation, store, market, capitalism, family, inflation, devaluation, gang, park, hedge, cobblestone, reserve, epidemic, mumiyo, herd, boulevard terrier, war, oil, resort, population migration, foreigner, highway.

4. Name the main useful function (GPF) for each of the following systems: electrometer, shepherd, lathe, ruble, rocket, metaphor, picture, election, store, notepad, notary.

Those people who at one time went through the defense of a candidate's dissertation know how to write it, defend it, and also know that the work is subject to strict requirements, failure to comply with which may entail not very good consequences. One of these requirements is the presence of regulations. What they are and how to formulate them will be discussed.

What are defense clauses?

Higher certification commission(Higher Attestation Commission) requires that the dissertation work, in addition to other mandatory elements, contain provisions submitted for defense - these are theses that have not been put forward by anyone before. These are unique results of scientific activity, conclusions that show how useful the research is and what its value is. We can say that the success of the defense depends on how they are formulated and written.
They are formed on the basis of:

• identifying existing problems;
• consistent analysis of the problems raised;
• logical generalization of all parts of the dissertation.

They should not be confused with conclusions. The conclusions are usually not applicable in practice and are purely theoretical rather than applied in nature. Whereas the provisions must have scientific novelty and be a contribution to the science of the author of the dissertation. They are specific results, and we can conditionally say that their formulation is the purpose of the study.

How to formulate the main points of a dissertation

How to approach writing a dissertation

Most importantly, in order to write a dissertation thesis, the applicant must interact as closely as possible with the staff of the department, including the supervisor. Before writing a paper, you need to determine research tactics, formulate the necessary provisions And decide how to present them in the best light.

The provisions may contain the following elements:

1. author's or author's clarified definitions
2. author's scientific conclusions
3. fundamental principles of the topic studied
4. classifications and characteristics of certain categories
5. lists
6. offers
7. ways to improve the object of study, etc.

Final point usually contains specific suggestions for improvement legal regulation the area being studied. But it is prohibited to include draft regulations in the list of annexes, because they follow from, but are not, scientifically based decisions.

Basic postulates for writing provisions in a dissertation

Typically, the introduction includes 3-6 clauses; next to the clause number you must write summary problem considered and solved by the author. Below are examples of phrases with which they begin:

• “The main scientific conclusions have been developed”;
• “The following results of scientific activity are submitted for defense...”;
• “The following new and containing elements of novelty main ideas are submitted for defense”;
• “During the work, factors were identified that influence...”;
• “The relationship between the main elements has been identified...”;
• “The feasibility of implementation has been determined...”, etc.

Such conclusions should be presented twice - in the abstract and directly in the introduction.

The list should include only those items in which the author is 100 percent sure.

It is very important not to repeat data that has already been used in other candidate dissertations, because each work must be unique, and duplicating ideas taken from other sources is already plagiarism. You only need to protect your works.
It is desirable that each point be the result of a specific scientific task or problem posed by the author. This does not apply only to those questions that relate to the history of the subject of study or to experience abroad. Their result can only be theoretical conclusions and practical suggestions, formulated for further research.

A very important factor when writing and defending a dissertation is the reliability of the provisions submitted for defense.

The author must consistently and convincingly prove that they are objective, reliable, and also confirmed in all types and classes of the subject of study within a specific object. That is, under any similar conditions, similar results could be obtained. You should not defend a work in which the author is not sure. The most common methods of confirming reliability are analysis, practical research and experiments.

Examples of provisions submitted for the defense of a candidate's dissertation

For each area of ​​research and, moreover, for each topic of the candidate's dissertation, its results must be determined, which must be presented and defended. It is important to ensure that they cover three important aspects:

• gist of the recommendations:
• difference from other approaches;
• the significance of the contribution to science.

Let's look at a few samples for various areas research.
By specialty "Religious Studies":

1. During scientific research It has been revealed that modern veneration of Jesus Christ is based on the same scheme of perception as it was in the peasant community of the 18th century.
2. A relationship has been revealed between the image of Jesus Christ and Byzantine art - both categories are influenced by folk beliefs.
3. The cult of Jesus Christ, existing within the framework of modern “alternative” beliefs, initiates the emergence of non-canonical iconography.
4. The spread of Mariological cults is facilitated by the active introduction of magical thinking in modern Russia.

By specialty "Archeology":

1. The territorial formation of the ancient Roman state represents an ordered totality. The settlement patterns that emerged as a result of colonization correspond to general principles. This allows us to study the Roman settlement system within the framework of general geographical concepts.
2. The relationship between the main elements of the study of archeology has been revealed: information about monuments obtained during excavations is derived from information obtained during archaeological exploration. With certain approaches to research, this material can be used to determine the place of the monument in the chronological system.
3. Settlements found in areas of primary settlement can be viewed from the point of view of additional features that define the subject and its context.

The examples given are only a small part of how diverse the provisions submitted for defense can be.

Thus, the most important, cornerstone scientific conclusions that the author must formulate must not only be theoretically reasoned, but also practically applicable in the scientific field. And then you will be able to protect your work.

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