Psychology as a science briefly. What is psychology: definition. Psychology as a science. Summary of theoretical issues

the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life activity, based on the manifestation in self-observation of special experiences that are not attributable to the outside world. The field of knowledge about the inner - mental - world of a person. The term originated in the 16th century. and means the actual doctrine of the soul or the science of the soul. In a strict sense, it is understood as the science of the psyche, and a psychologist is a person who professionally deals with psychology in theoretical and practical terms, including to help people in certain situations.

The separation of psychology from philosophy occurred in the 2nd half of the 19th century. This became possible due to the development of objective experimental methods, which replaced introspection, and the formation of a special subject of human psychology, the main features of which were activity and the appropriation of socio-historical experience.

Psychology occupies a very special place in the system of sciences. Reasons:

1) it is the science of the most complex things known to mankind;

2) in it, the object and subject of knowledge seem to merge; only in it does thought make a turn towards itself, only in it does a person’s scientific consciousness become his scientific self-consciousness;

3) its practical consequences are unique - they are not only incommensurably more significant than the results of other sciences, but also qualitatively different: since to know something means to master it and learn to manage it, and managing one’s mental processes, functions and abilities is the most ambitious task; Moreover, by getting to know oneself, a person thereby changes himself.

IN historically We can distinguish two fundamentally different stages in the development of psychology - the stages of pre-scientific psychology and scientific psychology. When we talk simply about psychology, we usually mean scientific psychology.

In general, psychology faces a twofold task: to further develop theoretical research and to adequately solve - sometimes urgently - practical problems. This calling of psychology gives reason to consider it as research behavior and mental processes, including mental activity, as well as the practical application of acquired knowledge.

Psychology has already accumulated many facts about how new knowledge about oneself makes a person different, changes his relationships, goals, states and experiences. We can say that psychology is a science that not only cognizes, but also constructs and creates a person.

Psychology is a living, evolving, developing field of knowledge and practice. It coexists many approaches, trends, theories, not mutually consistent in everything, and sometimes difficult to correlate: based on different philosophical systems, with different conceptual apparatuses, different explanatory principles. In psychology there is no single paradigm - a dominant theoretical and practical system that defines science as a whole. Moreover, many of its directions fundamentally do not adhere to traditional scientific principles, avoid deep theoretical constructions without asking for serious self-substantiation, and to a significant extent turn out to be the art of working with the human spiritual world. There is also no agreement on what psychology should study first and what its subject is.

Object of psychology; although psychology literally means the science of the soul, the question of the reality of the soul is still controversial from traditional scientific positions; Until the soul can be “scientifically” discovered and proven or disproved its existence, experiment with it. The soul remains empirically elusive. This is one of the features of psychology. If we talk not about the soul, but about the psyche, the situation will not change: the psyche turns out to be just as elusive. But for everyone it is quite obvious the existence of a certain subjective reality, a world of mental phenomena in the form of thoughts, experiences, ideas, feelings, impulses, desires and other things; it can be considered an object of psychology. Although this mental reality is different for everyone, we can assume that it is formed according to common basic principles, and try to discover and explore them.

Another feature of psychology is that, leaving the psyche as an object of reflection, it cannot make it an object of direct research: it has to look for other objects and through their study - indirectly - draw conclusions about the psyche itself. The choice of such a “secondary object” depends on what is considered the main thing that determines mental life - on the explanatory principle that is proposed by a certain scientific school.

The subject of psychology has changed over time. During the reign of introspection, it was inextricably linked with its method and represented the sphere of human consciousness. In the second decade of the 20th century, in connection with the debunking of the introspection method, the subject of psychology changed: it became human behavior. Thus, completely new facts were introduced into psychology - facts of behavior. But consciousness as a subject of psychology can be opposed not only by behavior (as internally observable - externally observable), but also by unconscious mental processes - as observable only indirectly, through “side effects” (-> mental unconscious process). These processes began to be studied especially intensively from the beginning of the 20th century, and already the first results dealt a blow to the psychology of consciousness that is quite comparable with the blow of behaviorism.

From the standpoint of activity theory, the subject of psychology is the laws of generation and functioning of the individual’s reflection of objective reality in the process of human activity and animal behavior. Here, activity is accepted as the initial reality with which psychology deals, and the psyche is considered as its derivative and as its integral side. So the psyche cannot exist outside of activity, and activity cannot exist outside of the psyche. To simplify, we can say that the subject of psychology is mentally controlled activity. A narrower point of view is the identification of an indicative system of mental control of activity as a subject of psychology of activity. In research practice, this has been realized along two strategic lines: in one of them, activity acts as a subject of research, in the other, as an explanatory principle. Thus, ideas about the structure of activity, its dynamics, forms, the process of interiorization, etc. are the result of the implementation of the first line. And the application of the concepts and provisions of the theory of activity to the analysis of mental processes, consciousness, and personality is the result of the implementation of the second line. Both lines are closely intertwined, and the success of each of them forms the basis for the development of the other.

The main problems of scientific psychology are:

1) a psychophysiological problem - about the relationship of the psyche to its bodily substrate;

2) a psychosocial problem - about the dependence of the psyche on social processes and its active role in their implementation by specific individuals and groups;

3) a psychopraxic problem - about the formation of the psyche in the course of real practical activity and about the dependence of this activity on its mental regulators - images, operations, motives, personal properties;

4) a psychognostic problem - about the relationship of sensory and mental mental images to the reality they reflect, etc. The development of these problems is carried out on the basis of:

1) the principle of determinism - revealing the conditionality of phenomena by the action of the factors that produce them;

2) the principle of systematicity - the interpretation of these phenomena as internally related components of an integral mental organization;

3) the principle of development - recognition of transformation, changes in mental processes, their transition from one level to another, the emergence of new forms of mental processes.

In the course of developing the main problems of psychology, its categorical apparatus was formed, where the categories of image, motive, action, personality, etc. are distinguished. The categorical structure of psychology, reflecting mental reality in its originality, serves as the basis for the whole variety of branches of psychology, which act as separate branches, often gaining independent status. The transformation of psychology into a bundle of branches is due to the demands of various areas of practice, confronting psychology with specific problems. These problems are usually complex and are developed by many disciplines. The inclusion of psychology in interdisciplinary research and participation in it is productive only when it enriches it with concepts, methods and explanatory principles unique to it. And in contacts with other sciences, psychology itself is enriched with new ideas and approaches.

The further development of psychology was seriously influenced by the emergence and widespread use of computers, which took over a number of functions that were previously the unique property of the human brain - the functions of accumulating and processing information, management and control. This made it possible to widely use cybernetic and information-theoretic concepts and models in psychology, which contributed to the formalization and mathematization of psychology, the introduction of the cybernetic style of thinking with its advantages due to the use of logical-mathematical apparatus, computers and other things, but also with its obvious and implicit shortcomings associated not so much with the humanization of the machine, but with the “cybernetization” of man and living beings in general.

Automation and cybernetization have sharply increased interest in operational diagnostics and prognosis, effective use and cultivation of human functions that cannot be transferred to electronic devices, primarily creative abilities. The study of problems of artificial intelligence and human creativity are becoming important areas of psychology.

Along with them, social psychology and management psychology are rapidly developing, solving problems related to the role of the “human factor” in the development of society, in management processes, as well as research related to space exploration, demographic, environmental and other pressing problems of our time. The inclusion of psychology in the multifaceted context of interaction between various social, natural and technical sciences gives particular urgency to the methodological analysis of its conceptual tools, explanatory principles, concepts and methodological procedures - in order to identify the most promising directions for its development.

PSYCHOLOGY

psycho + gr. logos - science, teaching). The science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life activity.

P. ASSOCIANIST. The direction of P., which considers the ability to form associations from primary mental units as the basis of mental activity.

P. AGE studies the characteristics of mental activity caused by age.

P. DEEP. The direction of foreign psychology and psychiatry, the subject of study of which is the unconscious as a source of motives for human behavior and the causes of mental disorders. Includes psychoanalysis, Adler's individual psychology, Jung's analytical psychology, neo-Freudianism, etc.

P. CHILDREN'S. Section P. age.

P. INDIVIDUAL ADLER. See Adler's individual psychology.

P. CRIMINAL. A section of legal law that studies the psychological patterns of the formation of illegal attitudes and their implementation in criminal behavior. In recent years, along with forensic psychiatric examination, forensic psychological examination has become increasingly important.

P. MEDICAL studies using psychological methods the characteristics of the psyche of a sick person, as well as the psychological characteristics of professional activity medical workers, the relationship between them and patients. Includes pathopsychology, neuropsychology, somatopsychology, psychophysiology, socio-psychological diagnostics in relation to medical practice, medical professional guidance, psychological aspects of psychoprophylaxis, mental hygiene and psychotherapy.

P. "OBJECTIVE". P.'s direction, which studies mainly the body's reactions to the influence of external, situational factors, while abstracting from the subjective experiences of the patient.

P. SOCIAL. P., which studies the patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by the factor of their inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves.

P. AGING. Gerontopsychology. Studies the characteristics of the psyche during aging. Age section P.

P. JUDICIAL. A branch of legal psychology that studies the mechanisms and patterns of people’s investigative activities, judicial review and crime prevention.

P. WORK explores mental activity, personal characteristics of a person in the process labor activity. It is important for organizing the rehabilitation of mentally ill patients.

Psychology

Most often, the term is defined as “the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche.” Other definitions offered by some scholars reflect their interpretation and, depending on professional inclination, emphasize the leading role of reason or behavior. Some psychologists even believe that the study of the human psyche cannot be considered a scientific discipline in the strict sense of the word.

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology simply cannot be defined; indeed, it is not easy to characterize. Even if someone does it today, tomorrow it will be considered an inadequate effort. Psychology is something that scientists and philosophers of various persuasions have created to try to understand the minds and behavior of various organisms, from the most primitive to the more complex. Consequently, in reality it is not a subject at all, it is about a subject or many subjects. There are few boundaries here, and except for the canons of science and the ethical standards of a free society, there should be no restrictions either on the part of its representatives or on the part of its critics. This is an attempt to understand what has so far largely eluded understanding. Any attempt to limit it or put it into some kind of framework implies that something is known about the limits of our knowledge, and this is not true. As a distinct discipline, it only emerged a century or so ago in the faculties of medicine and philosophy. From medicine she took the orientation that the explanation of what is done, thought and felt must ultimately be found in biology and physiology; from philosophy she took a class of deep problems relating to the consciousness of will and knowledge. Since then, it has been defined in different ways: as “the science of the psyche,” “the science of mental life,” “the science of behavior,” etc. All such definitions, of course, reflect the prejudices of those who give them rather than the actual nature of the field. In the course of writing this dictionary, a rather strange metaphor has emerged that seems to capture, to some extent, an essential quality of our discipline. It is like an amoeba, relatively unstructured, but clearly identifiable as a separate being with a special mode of action in which it projects itself onto some new techniques, some new problem areas, some theoretical models or even some other separate scientific fields, incorporating them and slowly and clumsily transforming into another form. Not very flattering, maybe for sure. For lexicographical problems, see psychologist.

PSYCHOLOGY

see psychology + -logy] - the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life activity. Among the branches of psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, developmental psychology, pedagogical psychology, special psychology, etc. stand out (see Special psychology)

Psychology

the science of consciousness, mental activity and behavior of living beings, starting from primitive ones and ending this series with man, from their birth to the end of life (science currently does not know more highly organized creatures than humans).

PSYCHOLOGY (DIMENSIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY)

procedures for determining the quantitative expression of psychological phenomena. They use a variety of scales containing a certain set of positions, put in some correspondence with psychological elements. According to the classification of scales proposed in 1946 by the American psychologist and psychophysicist S. S. Stevens, the following scales are distinguished: ratio scale, interval scale, ordinal scale and nominal scale.

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology) is a science that studies the psyche and consciousness of a person, as well as his behavior. Psychology deals with such basic concepts as memory, rational and irrational thinking, intelligence, learning, personality, perception and emotions, and also studies their connection with human behavior. Existing psychological schools differ in what philosophical concept they adhere to and what methods they use in their work. These include such schools of self-analysis as the school of Freud, Jung and Adler, as well as Gestalt psychology, behavioral and cognitive schools; modern psychology is especially attracted to schools of the latter direction (see Cognitive Psychology). Many practicing psychologists do not belong to any of these schools; some take eclectic positions. The various current branches of psychology, on the other hand, are functional or professional subdivisions of psychology, which are based on practical considerations. These include: abnormal, analytical, applied, clinical, comparative, evolutionary, educational, experimental, geriatric, industrial, child, physiological and social psychology. - Psychological.

Psychology

Word formation. Comes from the Greek. psyche - soul + logos - teaching.

Specificity. Studies the patterns of functioning and development of the psyche. It is based on the representation in introspection of special experiences that are not attributable to the outside world. From the 2nd half of the 19th century. There was a separation of psychology from philosophy, which became possible due to the development of objective experimental methods that replaced introspection, and the formation of a special subject of human psychology, the main features of which were activity and the appropriation of socio-historical experience. The main philosophical problem of psychology is whether psychology should be considered as objective, explanatory, hypothetical-constructive natural science or as a dialogical, understanding, interpretive, reconstructive humanities.

PSYCHOLOGY

from Greek psushe – soul + logos – teaching, science) – the science of the laws of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life. The interaction of living beings with the surrounding world is realized through mental processes, acts, and states that are qualitatively different from physiological ones, but not separable from them. For centuries, the phenomena studied by P. were designated by the general term “soul” and were considered the subject of one of the branches of philosophy, called in the 16th century. P. It has been shown that mental processes, being a product of an individual’s interaction with the external environment, are themselves an active causal factor in behavior. If idealistic concepts incorrectly explained this activity by a special mental causality, cognizable through internal observation, then the natural scientific study of genetically primary forms of the psyche approved the priority of objective methods, which later became decisive for P. Self-observation retains the importance of an important but auxiliary source of information about the human psyche . Being a product and function of social processes, the consciousness of an individual subject has a systemic and semantic organization that gives various manifestations of the psyche properties that qualitatively distinguish them from the psyche of animals. The possibility of comprehending the processes of consciousness, regardless of the subject’s self-report about them, is due to the fact that they develop in the objective system of his relations with other people and the surrounding world. In the same system, peering at others, the subject acquires the ability to judge the internal plan of his behavior. See Self-concept Not all components of this plane are translatable into the language of consciousness, but they, too, forming the sphere of the unconscious, serve as the subject of P. Inclusion of P. in interdisciplinary research and participation in them is productive only when it enriches them with concepts inherent only to it , methods, explanatory principles. At the same time, as a result of contacts with other sciences, philosophy itself is enriched with new ideas and approaches that develop its content and categorical apparatus, ensuring its integrity as an independent science. P.'s inclusion in the multifaceted context of interaction between various social, natural, and technical sciences gives particular urgency to the methodological analysis of its conceptual means, explanatory principles, concepts, and methodological procedures in order to identify promising directions for its further development. P. conflicts is one of the areas of research in P. and at the same time a branch of conflict management. The analysis of conflicts is a system-forming branch of conflictology. Of the 16 sciences that study conflict, only P. studies all types of conflicts in humans (social, intrapersonal) and animal conflicts. Man is the central link in conflicts at all levels without exception. Therefore, P.’s knowledge of human behavior in conflicts is a condition for their explanation.

e (“psyche” – soul, “logos” – teaching, knowledge). This is a science, first of all, about the laws of mental life and human activity and various forms of human communities. Psychology as a science studies facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.
Psychology is the science of the patterns of emergence, formation, development, functioning and manifestations of the human psyche in various conditions and at different stages of their lives and activities.
The main tasks of psychology:
1. Knowledge of the origins and characteristics of the human psyche, the patterns of its occurrence, formation, functioning and manifestations, the capabilities of the human psyche, its influence on human behavior and activity.
2. Development of recommendations for people to increase their stress resistance and psychological reliability when solving professional and other problems in various circumstances of life and activity.
The main functions of psychology:
1. As a fundamental science, it is called upon to develop psychological theory, to identify patterns of individual and group psyche of people and its individual phenomena.
2. As an applied area of ​​knowledge - to formulate recommendations for improving professional activities and everyday life of people.
Psychology studies the patterns of mental activity in order to more correctly understand a person and thereby skillfully influence him. Therefore, the importance of psychology is great in all types of practical activities where people enter into complex relationships with each other and influence each other. Knowledge of psychology is necessary for the correct organization of a person’s moral and mental self-education. Psychology helps a person understand his own mental life, understand himself, realize his strengths and weaknesses, his shortcomings. Knowledge of psychology opens up ways for self-improvement of mental activity: knowing how to improve your attention and memory, how to correctly assimilate educational material, you can learn to achieve the highest results with the least amount of time and effort.

What meaning does the term “psychology” have in the minds of the layman, the average person?
For example, a common expression: “He has such a psychology.” What implies a set of character traits, the inner world of a person or a group of people. In the latter case, the psychology of the group is the views, rules, customs, traditions, various internal processes flowing in it.
In everyday life, each of us performs certain psychological work, being, as it were, an everyday psychologist, observing patterns and drawing appropriate conclusions (for example, how carefully we observe the expressions of other people’s faces, their actions and reactions in various situations, and then draw certain conclusions, we structure our behavior accordingly).
However, there are professional psychologists and specialists. Why are their services still in demand?
Indeed, a professional psychologist has all the scientific experience accumulated by generations of scientists, has extensive practice, and knows specific proven methods for determining the condition and therapy. A professional psychologist is already an everyday psychologist, but a scientific one.
Psychology as a science uses experiment, information is verified, proven, and scientific conclusions are drawn. The decisions made are widely used in practice. What does it cost to create one test! A lot of preliminary research on a large sample of people, the use of mathematical methods, analysis, comparison, etc. Only if the test passes all tests is it considered scientific. Therefore, one should be critical of various pseudoscientific tests.
What questions do people turn to a psychologist with? These include issues of self-development, ways to resolve conflict situations, and ways to maintain relationships. There are many specializations of psychologists: children's, family, military, etc.
However, the types of activities that a psychologist carries out are almost similar.

Types of activities of a psychologist:

1. Psychological education.
2. Diagnostics.
3. Prevention.
4. Correction.
5. Development.
6. Therapy.
7. Consultation.

When preparing a specialist psychologist, special attention is paid to his knowledge of his rights, responsibilities and professional ethics. A psychologist who violates professional ethics may lose the right to practice forever.

Ethical principles of activity of a psychologist:

1. Unconditional respect for the client's personality.
2. Honesty, sincerity.
3. Confidentiality of information except in cases where its concealment could harm the client.
4. Protection of client rights.
5. Psychoprophylactic presentation of the results.
6. The psychologist is obliged to communicate the purpose of psychodiagnostics and name the persons to whom the diagnostic results will be available.
7. The psychologist is obliged to accept the client’s refusal to work with him psychologically.
8. The psychologist is obliged to prevent the use of psychological techniques by incompetent persons.
9. A psychologist should not make promises to clients that he is unable to fulfill.
10. A psychologist should not give advice or specific instructions. The main thing is to expand the client’s perception of the situation and instill in him confidence in his abilities.
11. The psychologist is responsible for using certain psychological methods and techniques and making recommendations. The client is responsible for the choice of actions and the result (if the client is a child, then the parent).
12. Professional independence of a psychologist. His final decision cannot be overturned by the administration. Only a special commission consisting of highly qualified psychologists and endowed with appropriate authority has the right to cancel a psychologist’s decision.

What do you think is the purpose of introducing such a subject as “Psychology” into the curriculum for painters and sculptors? This is explained by the fact that these specialties at the school have an additional specialization - pedagogical, and in accordance with the new requirements, teachers must have psychological training.
You can say that you are lucky, because... you have a great opportunity to get in touch with this interesting science. In addition, in addition to the theoretical course, you will have practical classes in which you will get to know yourself and each other, open your eyes to certain things, and maybe even make a big discovery for yourself.

The term "psychology" is formed from two Greek words « psyche" - soul and « logos" - word, teaching. Those. - the doctrine of the soul. However, over the centuries, people have discovered where this very soul is located. And if not found, then what kind of scientific research can we talk about? Therefore, gradually it came to studying what could be more material in this regard. This subject turned out to be the psyche.
The psyche is the quality of the brain and is responsible for reflection, processing, accumulation of information and the issuance of behavioral reactions. An elementary example of how the psyche works is sensations. Sensations of the external world and the internal world of our body.
The brain and in particular and especially the nervous system are the basis for the psyche. All mental phenomena, including emotions, are explained by the work of the psyche. Character and abilities are more complex concepts, however, they also grow and are formed on a mental basis.

PSYCHOLOGY is the science of the patterns of emergence, formation and manifestation of the psyche.
The focus of attention in different historical periods was on different subjects of psychology:
- from ancient times to the 17th century. – psychology – the science of soul ;
- from the 17th century at the beginning 20th century – psychology – the science of consciousness ;
- at the beginning 20th century – psychology – the science of behavior , science of unconscious manifestations of the psyche, etc.;
- modern understanding - psychology - the science of the patterns of emergence, formation and manifestation psyche ;
- in the future – psychology – the science of soul .

In the Psychology course you will become familiar with the main categories of psychology:

Exercise. "Branches of Psychology"
Before you move on to considering the categories of psychology, you can talk about the methods by which these categories are actually studied

Methods of psychological research.

Psychological research is based on general methodological principles that determine the types of psychological techniques used:
1. The principle of determinism– dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that produce them (biological and social).
2. The principle of unity of psyche and activity.
3. Systematic principle– all components depend on the whole and are manifested as a whole.
4. Principle of integrity– all mental processes are interconnected, thus, the psyche should be studied comprehensively, from all sides.
5. Development principle– taking into account dynamic qualitative changes in the psyche.

Scientific Research Methods– these are the techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable data to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.
Thanks to scientific methods, psychology has become able not only to assume, but also to prove cause-and-effect relationships between mental phenomena.
To collect primary data, psychology uses basic and auxiliary methods.
Basic methods:

1. Observation – scientifically targeted and in a certain way fixed perception of an object without interfering with its flow.
2. Everyday– unorganized, random.
3. Scientific– organized, with a clear plan and recording of results in a special diary.
4. Included– with the participation of the researcher
5. Not included– without the participation of the researcher.

Advantages – naturalness.
Flaws – passivity, subjectivism, inaccessibility of certain manifestations of the psyche.

1. Experiment – active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create the best conditions for the study of specific psychological phenomena.
2. Natural– occurs in natural conditions, with minor changes (for example, in order to study factors that help reduce fear of exams, the experimenter gives different settings to groups of students and analyzes the success of passing the exam depending on them).
3. Laboratory– takes place in specially organized conditions of isolation of the phenomenon being studied from external influences.

Natural and laboratory experiments can be ascertaining and formative.

1. Ascertaining– reveals facts and patterns that have developed during human development. Those. the facts are established and stated.
2. Formative– identifies the conditions and mechanisms for the development of certain qualities and abilities through their active formation. In the process, certain qualities of the subjects develop. It is expected that the research results will be put into practice with subsequent study of possible changes and effects.

Advantages – activity of the researcher, possibility of repetition, control of conditions.
Flaws – artificial conditions, high costs.

Auxiliary methods.

1. Analysis of activity products is a method of studying psychological phenomena based on practical results and objects of work, in which the creative powers and abilities of people are embodied.
2. Generalization of independent characteristics– identification and analysis of opinions about certain psychological phenomena and processes received from different people.

3. Classification of psychodiagnostic techniques (according to A.A. Bodalev).

1. Objective tests – techniques in which the correct answer is possible (for example, intelligence tests).
2. Standardized self-reports – focused on the use of the verbal abilities of the subjects, addressed to his thinking, imagination, memory.

- test questionnaire – involves a set of points (questions, statements) regarding which the subject makes judgments. Two or three alternative answer choices. The same psychological variable is represented by a group of questions.
- open questionnaire (questionnaire) – has no suggested answer. All responses fall into specific categories (e.g. agree/disagree).
- scale techniques – assessment of phenomena is carried out on scales (for example, “warm - cold”) according to the degree of expression of the specified quality. For example, the “Personal Differential” technique.
- individually oriented techniques – the parameters are not specified in them, but are allocated according to the responses of the subject. Allows statistical processing. For example, For example, the “Repertory Grids” technique by J. Kelly.
3. Projective techniques – they are based on the principle of projection, according to which the subject projects and reflects his unconscious or hidden needs and experiences onto insufficiently structured material (colors, spots of indefinite shape, etc.). The subject’s task is to organize the stimulus material or give it a personal meaning.
4. Dialogical techniques – in them the effect is achieved through contact with the subject.
- verbal DT : conversation - obtaining information in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of an issue; interview - obtaining information through oral answers to oral questions.
- nonverbal DT – diagnostic games (playing with a child, role-playing game).
The involvement of the researcher is maximum in dialogic methods, average in projective methods and rap tests, and minimal in objective tests and questionnaires.

Characteristics of tests.

Workshop. Self-doubt test.
In terms of popularity in educational and professional psychodiagnostics, the test method has held 1st place in world psychodiagnostic practice for about a century.
Testing refers to diagnostic methods that are characterized by an emphasis on the measurement (i.e., numerical representation) of some psychological variable.
A test is a short-term task, the completion of which can serve as an indicator of the perfection of certain mental functions.
Typically, the test consists of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answer options. Then, when counting, the answers are summed up, the total score is compared with test norms, and then standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.
Types of tests:

1. Personal
2. Intelligence tests.
3. Achievement Tests

Advantages of tests:

1. Standardization of conditions and results, i.e. uniformity of the procedure for conducting and assessing the test. Includes:

– precise instructions;
- time restrictions;
- preliminary display of the task;
- taking into account the way the questions are interpreted by the subjects
etc.
2. Efficiency. Economical(a large number of subjects in a short period of time).
3. Optimal difficulty, i.e. accessibility for the average person. If during the aerobatics approximately half of the test subjects complete the task, then the task is successful and is left in the test. Also, the tasks of moderate difficulty included in the test can help increase confidence in many test takers.
4. Reliability. Any well-constructed educational test covers the main sections of the curriculum as a whole, and the chances of “failing” for excellent students or “succeeding” for laggards are reduced.
5. Justice. Protection from experimenter bias. There is no “it’s easier for your own people, it’s harder for strangers.”
6. Possibility of computerization.
7. Differentiated nature of assessment, i.e. The assessment is fractional; usually several (rather than two) categories are distinguished. For example, “hopeless – not hopeless – simply capable – very capable – talented.”
Disadvantages of tests:

1. The danger of “blind” (automatic) errors. It should be remembered that shifts may occur in the procedure, for example, the subject did not understand the instructions.
2. The danger of profanity– the use of tests by unqualified people: the use of 2-3 tests for everyone and everything, “for all occasions.” For example, MMPI was once used for personnel selection in our country. As a result, the “Schizophrenia” scale was interpreted as “originality of thinking”, “Psychopathy” - as “impulsivity”, etc.
3. Loss of individual approach. Individual characteristics can lead to distortion of results, and it is important for the researcher to notice such reactions to the test (for example, anxiety can lead to random errors).
4. Difficulties in expressing individuality, because The test answers are standard.
5. The formalized nature of the situation, testing procedures. In this regard, the researcher is obliged to establish a trusting environment, show participation, and reduce the resistance and defense of the subjects.

In any case, tests must be used in combination with other methods - written work, interviews, conversation, projective techniques.

Projective techniques.
Workshop. Psychogeometry, Determination of the dominant instinct.
Classification of projective techniques:

1. Associative PT. They involve the presentation of some disordered material that needs to be given a subjective meaning (Rorschach blots. Here the content of the interpretation, the color, shape of the blots, and the originality of the answers are assessed).
2. Interpretive PTs. The subject’s task is to interpret any events depicted in the pictures (it is assumed that everyone interprets them in connection with their attitude towards them) (for example, TAT (thematic apperception test). The subject identifies himself with the hero. His characteristics are discovered. Environmental pressure is revealed The powers of the hero and the environment are compared (the combination of the hero and the environment forms a “theme” as the structure of their interaction)).
3. PT based on addition. The test subject’s task is to complete a story or sentence (for example, Rosenzweig’s test of reaction to frustration. The type of reaction to an obstacle is determined: extrapunitive reaction - the external cause of frustration is condemned and resolution of the situation is required from another person; intrapunitive reaction - directed at oneself with acceptance guilt and responsibility for resolving the situation).
4. PT design. Separate details are presented, from which the subject composes various kinds of complete pictures (in connection with his own taste, experience, interests), and also comes up with a story based on individual fragments or after listening to sounds and noises.
5. Choice-based PTs from the presented material of such decisions that are indirectly related to hidden drives, sympathies, intentions (for example, the Szondi test, the eight-color Luscher test, “Psychogeometry” (determines the personality type by the contour of the figure)).

Distinctive features of projective techniques:

1. Relative freedom of the subject in choosing an answer and tactics of behavior.
2. Absence of external indicators of the evaluative attitude towards the subject on the part of the experimenter.
3. Comprehensive diagnostics of personal properties and relationships between the individual and the environment.

The most common form of PT is drawing tests: “Non-existent animal”, “Draw a person”, “Self-portrait”, “House-tree-person”, “My family”.

Application
Color and position values ​​in M. Luscher's eight-color test.
Blue- need for peace.
Green- need for self-affirmation.
Red– need for purposeful activity.
Yellow– need for spontaneous activity.
Violet– victory of red over blue.
Brown- the sensory basis of sensations.
Black– denial of the colors of life and existence itself.
Grey– shelter from external influences, release from obligations, fencing off.
Position meaning:
1st- the main method of action, a means of achieving a goal.
2nd- the goal that the subject strives for.
3rd and 4th- indicate a current situation or a course of action arising from a given situation.
5th and 6th– currently unused personality reserves, its characteristics.
7th and 8th– a suppressed need, or a need that should be suppressed, because there may be adverse consequences.

The task is to draw houses “House-Tree-Man”. At the next lesson, discuss and receive a printout of the interpretation.
- draw a person (interpretation according to the Machover drawing test).

The concept of the psyche.

The psyche, namely the patterns of its occurrence, formation and manifestation, is the subject of study of modern psychology.
The psyche is a systemic quality of the brain that provides humans and animals with the ability to reflect the effects of objects and phenomena in the surrounding world.
The main quality, function of the psyche, and also one of the basic categories of psychology is reflection. Reflection is a multi-level active process of processing information about the object of reflection and creating an adequate model of this object. The psyche is a “subjective image of the objective world”, because we reflect reality through the prism of our inner world.
Physiological basis of the psyche– the brain, namely the nervous system and the features of its work. In this case, it is important not only the presence of certain parts of the brain, but most importantly, multiple connections between them. The more connections and relationships there are, the more complex they are, the more perfect the psyche, the richer the person’s experience.
For the full functioning of the psyche, the following conditions are necessary:

1. Full brain activity;
2. Constant influx of external information;
3. Interaction with people and cultural objects in which the experience of humanity as a whole is concentrated.

Functions of the psyche:

1. Active reflection of the influences of the surrounding reality;
2. Regulation of behavior and activity. Behavior is an external form of manifestation of the psyche;
3. A person’s awareness of himself and his place in the world around him, and, consequently, adaptation and correct orientation in it.

The nervous system happens central(brain and spinal cord) (CNS) and peripheral(nerve endings - receptors– which perceive various types of energy (mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic) and convert it into a nerve impulse.
The youngest and most advanced section of the nervous system is bark brain. This is where human thinking and consciousness and the highest levels of thinking in animals are formed.
The unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. neuron. It consists of a body (soma) and processes - dendrites and axon. They transmit nerve impulses. The axon is the longest process and the most important. It is covered with a myelin sheath, which allows the impulse to travel very quickly (several tens of m/s). All cells are connected by synapses. These are enlarged plaques containing mediators - impulse transmitters on a biochemical basis. Under the influence of external and internal biochemical substances, impulse transmission can accelerate or slow down, thereby regulating and determining the mental state of the body.
The neuron is enveloped by glial cells that serve metabolism, as well as blood capillaries.
Neurons, glia and blood capillaries form nerve.
Neurons and nerves are sensitive (sensory), motor (motor), and also conductors of impulses from one part of the nervous system to another (local network neurons).
The brain also consists of two hemispheres- left and right.
The cerebral cortex consists of shares– frontal lobes (responsible for goal setting and activity), parietal lobes (responsible for sensations), occipital lobes (responsible for vision), temporal lobes (responsible for hearing) and zones– primary zones (analyze information from receptors), secondary zones (synthesis of information from receptors), tertiary zones (carry out a complex synthesis of information from different zones (neurons are located at their boundaries)).
When the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes are damaged, the reception of information is disrupted and individual signs of the stimulus are lost. Moreover, if the right hemisphere is damaged, the person does not realize his defect. The person cannot name the object and is not oriented in space.
When the frontal lobes are damaged, muscle paralysis occurs, motor skills decay, goal setting for activities, voluntary memorization, etc. are disrupted, there is no program of activities, criticism of one’s actions is disrupted, the same actions are performed, and cycling occurs (perseveration of movements). The frontal lobes begin to develop intensively at 6–7 years of age and finally mature by 15–16 years of age.
Analyzer is a system for processing information at all levels of its passage through the central nervous system. Thus, the analyzer can be visual, auditory, gustatory, skin, etc. Each analyzer has 3 sections:

1. Peripheral department - represented by a receptor (for example, the eye receptor - the retina);
2. Conductive department - represented by a nerve (for example, the optic nerve);
3. Central department - represented by corresponding zones in the cerebral cortex (for example, the occipital zone).

General patterns.

1. All human organs have a strictly defined representation in the cerebral cortex (in this case, the more developed and involved the organ, the larger the area occupied by its projection in the cerebral cortex);
2. The entire nervous system and brain ultimately take part in information processing (the principle of systemic activity of the brain);
3. The cerebral cortex is hierarchically organized (from primary to tertiary zones).

The psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations:

1. Mental processes– mental phenomena that provide the primary reflection and subsequent awareness by a person of environmental influences. They are divided into cognitive processes (sensation, perception, etc.) and emotional-volitional processes.
2. Mental properties– the most stable and constantly manifesting personality traits, providing a certain qualitative and quantitative level of behavior and activity typical for a given person. These are orientation, abilities, temperament, character.
3. Mental conditions- this is a certain level of performance and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic of him at the moment. These are activity, passivity, fatigue, apathy, vigor, anxiety, etc.
4. Psychic formations– these are mental phenomena that are formed in the process of a person acquiring life and professional experience, the content of which includes a special combination of knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Stages of mental development in phylogenesis.

1. Elementary sensory psyche(protozoa, worms, gastropods). At this level, organisms are able to reflect individual properties of the environment. Based on sensations. Organisms purposefully move towards biologically useful substances and avoid harmful ones. This happens due to such a property as irritability. Irritability is the ability to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by changing the state of the body.
2. Perceptual psyche(fish, cephalopods, insects; at its highest level - birds, mammals). The ability to reflect the environment in the form of holistic images and the ability to learn appears. Behavioral responses are expanding. Behavior is plastic. Organisms can transfer a skill to new conditions.
3. Intellectual psyche(monkeys, dolphins). Behavior is very flexible. Animals can solve complex problems and change behavior when obstacles arise by identifying regular connections between objects. Thus, the presence of imaginative and visual-effective thinking is noted (i.e., for learning, manipulation of animal objects and observation is necessary). Monkeys understand the relationships “more - less”, “shorter - longer”, “more often - less often”, various forms geometric shapes. The animal cannot abstract itself from a specific situation, and there is also no concept of time.

The concept of consciousness.

The psyche is represented at different levels. This consciousness– the highest level of mental development - and the deepest layer of the psyche – unconscious. The unconscious is a form of reflection of reality, during which its sources are not realized, and the reflected reality merges with experiences.
Consciousness.
Consciousness is the highest and most generalized form of reflection of the world. Several factors in the development of consciousness can be identified:

1. Making and using tools. Fine motor skills and thinking develop;
2. Development of sense organs;
3. Collaborative activities and communication through language. Language is a system of signs and symbols. Animals also have vocal reactions, but they are primitive and generalized (for example, they do not convey which predator is approaching). Thanks to language, an image appears in the mind - a person designates an object in his speech or mentally reproduces it. If he transfers it to another, then, thanks to the social nature of consciousness, the same image also arises. There is a meaning of the word - it has a social nature. But there is a meaning of the word - it has a subjective nature.
4. Production of objects of material and spiritual culture.

All these conditions are provided work.
CONSCIOUSNESS is the general quality of all human mental functions, the result of the socio-historical formation of a person in work activity with constant communication with other people through language.

Distinctive features of consciousness:
1. Conditioning social conditions(historical era, class, team, company). Consciousness that reflects social relations is social consciousness. Individual consciousness is the spiritual world of individual people. Social consciousness
refracted through the individual. Forms of social consciousness - science, art, religion, morality, etc.

1. Reflection of the world in its essential connections and relationships - highlighting the main characteristics of phenomena, what characterizes them and distinguishes them from others similar to them. For example, a table, a chair, a closet, a hanger, a notebook.
2. Predictive character (imagination of reality).
3. Creative transformation of reality.
4. The presence of intellectual schemes (mental structures in which concepts, rules, logical operations of information processing, etc. are located).
5. The presence of self-awareness, reflection (i.e., knowing oneself by knowing others; self-knowledge by analyzing one’s own activities and behavior; self-control, self-education).

Some scientists call the hallmark of consciousness intentionality of actions, focus on an object, purposefulness. But animals have this too. If the behavior of a bird that dismisses a predator from its nest by pretending to be wounded can still be called instinctive, then the behavior of higher primates provides interesting information. The ability of chimpanzees to communicate intentionally was studied by creating situations in which a human and an ape foraged together for food. They informed each other of her whereabouts. When a person helped a chimpanzee and gave it all the food it found, the monkey also sent the right signals about the place. If a person took all the food he found for himself, then the monkey misled him by not giving the necessary signals and not taking into account the “false” signals from him.
In addition, monkeys are capable of deception (Beata the monkey).
Altruism can be called a purely human sign of consciousness, when the interests of another person are the central point of behavior.
We can say that animals have the prerequisites for consciousness, but only humans are able to generalize their experience, create joint knowledge, which is consolidated in speech, samples of material and spiritual culture.
Impaired consciousness.
Loss of consciousness occurs during sleep, during illness, or in a state of hypnosis.

Self-awareness.
SELF-AWARENESS is the process by which a person comes to know and relate to himself. It is based on separation, opposition to the surrounding world.
Components of consciousness (according to V.S. Merlin):

1. Awareness of the difference between oneself and the rest of the world;
2. Consciousness of “I” (as an active subject of activity);
3. Awareness of one’s mental properties, emotional self-esteem;
4. Social and moral self-esteem, self-esteem based on experience.

In the scientific literature you can find the concept of the image of “I”, or “I-concept”. This is the central link of self-awareness. It includes:
1. Intellectual component – ​​self-knowledge (knowledge of oneself, the ability to characterize oneself);
2. Emotional component – ​​self-attitude, self-esteem;
3. Behavioral component - a set and selection of characteristic, typical behavioral strategies and tactics.
Self-esteem is formed with experience, with the assessment of other people's reactions to the subject. Self-esteem can be adequate (with a slight discrepancy between the “real self” and the “ideal self”) and inadequate (overestimated and underestimated).
Disorders of self-awareness.

1. Depersonalization – loss of “I”, viewing oneself as a stranger, an outsider;
2. Split personality, split;
3. Violation of bodily identification - parts of the body are perceived as something separate;
4. Derealization is the loss of a sense of the reality of one’s life and the whole world.

The concept of the unconscious.

The first ideas about the unconscious go back to Plato. He metaphorically represented the unconscious as two rushing horses - black and white - ruled by consciousness. Thus, he first spoke about intrapersonal conflict.
A person’s UNCONSCIOUS is those phenomena and states that are not conscious or controlled by him, but they exist and manifest themselves in a variety of involuntary actions:

1. Wrong actions– slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, errors in listening. They arise due to the collision of a person’s unconscious desires and a consciously set goal. When the unconscious desire, the motive, wins, a reservation arises;
2. Involuntary forgetting names, intentions, events (indirectly associated for a person with unpleasant experiences);
3. Dreams, dreams, daydreams. Dreams are a symbolic way of eliminating an unpleasant sensation, experience, or dissatisfaction. If consciousness and censorship are strong in a person, then the content of dreams becomes confusing and incomprehensible.

Levels of the unconscious:

1. Preconscious– sensations, perception, memory, thinking, attitudes;
2. Phenomena that were previously conscious– motor skills (walking, writing, etc.);
3. Personal unconscious– desires, thoughts, needs, crowded out of consciousness by censorship. This is the deepest layer of the unconscious.

Methods for studying the unconscious:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Free association method(the man relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Interpretation of dreams.
4. Transfer Analysis(a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with close people).
Workshop. Mandala image. The goal is self-knowledge, self-awareness, achieving personal harmony.

Stages of development of psychology

1. Pre-scientific (before the 6th century BC)

Primitive society.

2. Philosophical (6th century BC – 19th century)

Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times.

3. Scientific (from the 19th century).

Modern times.

Pre-scientific stage.

Riddles human life and behavior have worried people since primitive times. Ancient man tried to explain why he sees and hears, why one is brave, another is strong, one is more capable, learns knowledge faster, another slower.
Among ancient peoples, the soul is explained within the framework of various mythological and religious beliefs. In most cases, ideas about the soul arise along with funeral rites.
The soul appears to be a human double, a terrible demon or an incorruptible, foggy image. The soul was often depicted as a winged creature. The soul was considered as something supernatural, like an animal in an animal, a man in a man. The activity of an animal or a person is explained by the presence of this soul, and tranquility in sleep or death is explained by its absence. Sleep or trance is a temporary absence of the soul, and death is permanent. You can protect yourself from death either by closing the soul’s exit from the body, or, if it has left it, by achieving its return. To achieve these goals, taboos are used. The soul of the tribe, in particular, is contained in the totem.

Philosophical stage.

Antiquity.
The first more or less coherent teachings about human psychology appear in the era of antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers imagined the soul as the movement of air (Anaximenes) or a flame (Heraclitus), or a faint imprint of the world soul - the Cosmos.
Heraclitus, for example, called the Cosmos an “eternally burning fire,” and the soul its spark. Determined the difference between the souls of a child and an adult. As you grow older, your soul becomes drier and hotter. The degree of moisture of the soul affects its cognitive abilities. The soul of a child and a drunk is wet.
Aristotle believed that all objects where there is movement and heat have a soul, and distinguished plant, animal and rational souls. His doctrine of the universal spirituality of the world is called animism.
About 2 thousand years ago, in the era of antiquity, the human psyche was explained by 2 concepts:

Materialistic doctrine (Democritus).

Everything that exists on Earth has a soul, or rather, elements of the soul. Everything consists of atoms of different sizes and mobility. And the smallest and most mobile are the atoms of the soul. Those. the soul began to be understood as a material organ that animates the body. The atoms of the soul are independent and mobile, and with their help Democritus explained the processes of cognition, sleep, death (by the dynamics of the movement of these atoms).
After death, the soul dissipates into the air. I tried to explain the nature of sensations. Sensations are contact, because in the sense organs, the atoms of the soul are very close to the surface and can come into contact with microscopic, invisible to the eye, copies of surrounding objects - eidols - which float in the air, falling on the sense organs. Eidols expire from all items (the “expiration” theory).

Idealistic doctrine (Plato).

There is an ideal world where souls are born and reside, as well as ideas - perfect prototypes of all things. All things, objects, incl. and people strive for this perfection, being, as it were, variations of these ideas and concepts.
The soul is not material, and knowledge of the world is not the interaction of the psyche with the outside world, but the soul’s memory of what it saw in the ideal world before it entered the body. Therefore, thinking is reproductive.
Plato classified mental phenomena into reason (in the head), courage, “will” (in the chest) and lust, “motivation” (in the abdominal cavity). The predominance of one or another part determined the individuality of a person and was correlated with his social position (reason - for aristocrats, courage - for warriors, lust - for slaves).
The soul is immortal, constant, it is the guardian of morality. Only the rational part of the soul is good, and all feelings and passions are evil.
Plato imagined the soul as a carriage, where the wild and ugly horse is the lower soul, the supple and beautiful horse is the higher one, and the driver is the rational part of the soul, the mind.

The materialistic understanding of the soul was reinforced by the successes of ancient doctors. Thus, thanks to permission to dissect the corpses of “rootless” people, various parts of the brain were described in detail, a connection was established between the number of convolutions and the perfection of the brain, the connection between the sense organs and the brain, the difference between sensory and motor nerves, the types of temperament were determined (Hippocrates defined temperament as the predominance of one of the body’s juices - bile, black bile, blood, mucus), etc.

Middle Ages.

Knowledge about the soul during this period becomes an integral part of the teaching about God, i.e. lose their independent value. The Church prohibits any experiments. Attempts are being made to combine ancient ideas about the soul with religious ones.
For example, the teachings of the Christian Platonist Aurelius Augustine the Blessed. According to Augustine, the basis of the soul is not reason, but will. All knowledge lies in the soul, which lives and moves in God. They are extracted by directing the will. Any mental processes are also controlled by the will, for example, from the “imprints” of the external world that are stored by the senses, the will creates memories.
The will acts in 2 directions:

1. Receives and accumulates external experience;
2. Provides inner experience of the highest value - i.e. the soul has the ability to turn inward and comprehend itself (in modern terms, this is self-awareness).

Revival.

The Renaissance freed all sciences and art from the dogmas and restrictions of the church, and they began to actively develop.
During the Renaissance, the materialistic explanation of the soul continued to develop. Is being drawn up affect theory, or emotions: mental is a certain state of matter, subject to the law of self-preservation. Positive emotions reveal the strength of the soul striving for self-preservation, while negative emotions reveal its weakness.

New time.

One of the main questions that worried philosophers was the problem of the connection between soul and body. For a very long time, the prevailing point of view was that the nature of the soul and body are completely different, and their relationship is similar to the relationship between the puppeteer (soul) and the doll (body), i.e. it was believed that the soul could influence the body, but not vice versa.
French philosopher R. Descartes also believed that the body and soul have different natures and act according to different laws. Mechanics became one of the leading exact sciences that had a strong influence on the development of other sciences. It led to the creation of complex machines capable of performing all kinds of movements reminiscent of human and animal behavior. There was a temptation to apply the laws of mechanics to explain human movements. The first mechanical principle was realized by R. Descartes in the concept of “reflex”. A reflex is a mechanical motor response of a biological machine to an external mechanical physical impact. In the organic needs of man, naturalists saw an analogue of the energy source of a machine, and in the anatomical structure of the body, the articulations of the joints - something reminiscent of the lever system of a machine. Thus, the body, according to Descartes, is material and acts according to the laws of mechanics. The soul is immaterial, and its main property is the ability to think, remember and feel.
In the 18th century English philosopher J. Locke put forward an empiric-sensualistic concept, according to which the sensual principle prevails over the rational, over reason. There is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses. The consciousness of a child at birth is a tabula rasa - a “blank slate” on which life leaves its writings. Sensations are formed in us according to the principle of association (connections between mental units). This is how experience is formed. This idea formed the basis of many theories based on the idea of ​​the leading role of external influences for the development and education of a person. Thus, Locke attached great importance to education, including the formation of a positive attitude towards good deeds and a negative attitude towards bad ones.
In the 18th century Thanks to the development of medicine and physiology, a connection between the soul, psyche and brain is established. C. Bell opens two types of fibers - sensory and motor, confirming the idea of ​​​​the reflex.
For the first time, a reflexive interpretation of psychological phenomena and processes is given in the book THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the brain."
Over time, it is discovered that the reflex principle cannot explain the variability of human movements, their dependence on the mental state, and thinking.

Scientific stage.

In the 19th century In many scientific fields, experimentation is becoming increasingly valuable. An introduction to the psychology of a scientific laboratory experiment belongs to a German scientist V. Wundtu. The first is psychological experimental laboratory under the leadership of Wundt opened in 1979. Sensation and perception were mainly measured.
For example, the psychophysical law of sensations was derived: “The intensity of sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus” (in order to obtain an increment in sensation in an arithmetic progression, it is necessary to increment the action of physical stimuli in geometric progression, i.e. the stimulus must be several times stronger than the previous time to cause the same sensation). As for thinking, Wundt suggests using method of introspection(introspection), as well as study of cultural monuments, language, myths, art, etc.
During this period, the subject of psychology changes. Thanks to the experiment, it becomes consciousness, which is understood as the ability to think, feel, and desire. Psychology is becoming an independent science. Developing industries:
- experimental psychophysiology of sensory organs;
- psychology of individual differences. F. Galton introduced the twin method to clarify the relationship between heredity and environment in the determination of individual differences.
A natural experiment is developing (in natural conditions) ( A.F. Lazursky– personality psychology, V.M. Bekhterev– psychology of small groups).

The main directions of development of psychology after the crisis of the beginning. 20th century

The shortcomings of the introspection method lead to a crisis in psychological science. As a result, in the beginning 20th century A number of new directions are emerging, each of which has proposed its own subject of psychology and methods of studying it.

Behaviorism

The name comes from English. behavior - “behavior”. American psychologists are considered the founders E.L. Thorndike And J. Watson.
Behaviorists believed that consciousness is too subjective and hidden from us and therefore cannot be measured. They declared the psyche to be “a black box where a person hides his problems, creating the appearance of solving them.” You can measure and record the external manifestation of the psyche - behavior.
The behavior pattern was described by behaviorists in the form of a formula: S –R(“stimulus-response”). A stimulus is any external influence on the body, and a reaction is any response. The meaning of the formula is that knowing which stimulus causes a certain reaction, you can control the behavior of humans and animals. To do this, it is necessary to observe human behavior, establish patterns and later use the appropriate stimulus to evoke the desired reaction. To enhance the action, you need to use reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive (reward, praise, etc.) and negative (punishment, etc.), also direct (immediate) and indirect (when a person or animal observes the behavior of another individual and what such behavior can lead to). This is what happens learning, the process of acquiring individual, personal experience ( A. Bandura).
Neobehaviorists ( E. Tolman, B. Skinner) supplemented the formula S – R: S – O –R, where O – cognitive processes: thinking, memory, imagination.
The development of behaviorism was greatly influenced by the teachings of I.P. Pavlova and V.M. Bekhterev about the nature of the reflex.
Critics of behaviorism draw attention to the mechanistic approach to the psyche, its strict determination by external circumstances, and the blurring of the boundaries between human and animal psychology.

Psychoanalysis

The founder is the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Z. Freud. One of his biographers notes: “Copernicus moved humanity from the center of the world to its outskirts, Darwin forced us to recognize our kinship with animals, and Freud proved that reason is not the master of its own house.” Z. Freud made a revolution in ideas about the human psyche - human behavior is determined not only and not so much by consciousness, but more by the unconscious (hidden, suppressed experiences, desires).
S. Freud made this conclusion based on his medical practice. He treated hysteria and neuroses. He noted that these diseases are caused by the suppression of various kinds of psychotraumas that took place mostly in early childhood. These psychotraumas do not disappear, but wander within a person, periodically coming out in dreams, slips of the tongue, drawings, jokes, etc. According to Freud, in order to get rid of them, it is necessary not to suppress them, but to remember them in all their colors, relive them and, most importantly, react. For these purposes, Freud used:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Method of free associations (the person relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Interpretation of dreams.
4. Analysis of transference (a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with loved ones).
This is how psychoanalysis is carried out.

Gestalt psychology

Founders – German scientists K. Koffka, W. Köhler, M. Wertheimer. The name comes from it. gestalt – “form, image, structure.” From their point of view, the psyche is an integral structure that cannot be reduced to a set of individual elements. The whole is not the sum of its parts; the parts do not determine the whole, but on the contrary, the properties of the whole determine the properties of its individual parts. Thus, a musical melody cannot be reduced to a sequence of different musical sounds. It is important to study the structure of connections between them.
A holistic structure is what it is gestalt.
Concept "figure-ground"- one of the key ones in Gestalt psychology. For example, perception is not the sum of sensations, it is holistic. Figure and ground are difficult to see together. Usually one integral part stands out - either a figure or a background.
In psychotherapy, Gestalt techniques are also aimed at establishing integrity. Thus, a well-known exercise is the “Circle of Subpersonalities”, the task of which is to bring individual manifestations of personality (“I want”, “I need”, etc.) to harmony. The Mandala exercise is also a typical example.

Cognitive psychology

Name from lat. сognitio – knowledge, cognition. Cognitive psychology examines the dependence of a person’s behavior on his existing cognitive maps (schemas), which determine his worldview. Associated with names A. Beck, A. Ellis.
Critics of cognitive psychology note the simplification of a person’s inner world, acting according to schemes and models, and identifying the brain with a machine. It is not without reason that the emergence and development of this direction are associated with the rapid development of computer technology and the development of cybernetics (the science of the laws of the process of managing and transmitting information).
The structure of cognitive schemas includes beliefs and rules through which people sort and use incoming information. At the same time, beliefs can be dysfunctional and cause cognitive errors leading to inappropriate behavior.
Examples of errors:
1. Arbitrary conclusion. Drawing conclusions in the absence of evidence. Example– a working mother who, at the end of a hard day, concludes, “I’m a terrible mother.”
2. Selective abstraction. Selective attention to an unimportant detail while simultaneously ignoring a more significant one. Example- a lover who becomes jealous when he sees that his girlfriend tilts her head towards the interlocutor at a noisy party in order to hear him better.
3. Overgeneralization. Deriving a general rule from one or more isolated cases. Example– a woman who, after a disappointing date, comes to the conclusion “All men are the same. I will always be rejected."
4. Exaggeration and understatement.Example The first is a student who predicts disaster: “If I get even a little nervous, I will certainly fail.” Example the second is a man who says his terminally ill mother has a “slight cold.”
5. Personalization. Having a tendency to attribute external events to oneself in the absence of adequate evidence. Example- a person sees an acquaintance walking along the opposite side of a busy street, who does not notice his greeting wave, and thinks: “I must have offended him in some way.”
6. Dichotomous thinking.“Black and white”, “either-or”, etc., maximalism. Example– the student thinks: “If I don’t pass this exam with excellent marks, I’m a failure.”

A. Beck believes that reasons Such cognitive errors are:
1. Psychological trauma received in childhood.Example– a five-year-old boy went on a journey and, upon returning, found out that his beloved dog had died; As a result, the boy developed the attitude: “When I am physically at a great distance from others, something bad happens to them.”
2. Childhood abuse. This undermines self-esteem and makes the child vulnerable. Often, people significant to the child model offensive behavior that he will later use against other people or criticize himself excessively.
3. Negative life experiences, learning.

Humanistic psychology

It arose in the 60s of the 20th century. in the USA. Founders A. Maslow, K. Rogers. The name comes from the Latin humanus – “humane”. Humanistic psychology studies only humans and argues that animals are not worth studying. This direction is based on an optimistic approach to understanding human nature: faith in the creative powers of every person, in the fact that he is able to consciously choose his destiny and build his life. Humanists argue that a person is initially good, and his aggression is the result of environmental influences. The focus is on a healthy, self-actualizing personality.
The highest human need is the need for self-actualization, i.e. in revealing your personal potential. Moreover, this higher need arises and can be satisfied by satisfying the lower ones (physiological, for example).

Domestic psychology

The roots of Russian psychological thought go back to the 19th century. One of the most significant applications for the construction of psychological knowledge at that time was the work THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the brain."
I.P. Pavlov- great Russian scientist-physiologist, founder of the doctrine of higher nervous activity (HNA).
Bekhterev V.I.- great Russian physiologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, founder of Russia's first experimental psychological laboratory and the Psychoneurological Institute (1908) - the world's first center for the comprehensive study of man. Developed a natural science theory of behavior.
Rubinshtein S.L.- an outstanding Russian psychologist and philosopher. He developed the activity principle in psychology, the principle of determinism, and the principle of the personal approach.
Luria A.R.- an outstanding domestic psychologist, the founder of neuropsychology in our country. The main attention was paid to the experimental study of the localization of higher mental functions (HMF).
Vygotsky L.S.– the founder of the cultural-historical concept of mental development, according to which the mental development and formation of a child’s personality occurs through interaction with society, culture, in the process of appropriating culturally specified ways of acting with objects, and familiarity with the achievements of culture and science. Thus, the psyche is culturally and historically conditioned.
Leontyev A.N.- an outstanding domestic psychologist. He developed a psychological theory of activity, which is a recognized theoretical direction in domestic and world psychological science. According to it, the psyche is born, formed and manifested in activity. At the same time, at each stage of growing up, the leading activity that has the greatest impact is identified. For example, in preschool age it is play, in primary school age it is learning, in adolescence it is intimate and personal communication.

from Greek psyche - soul, logos - teaching, science) - the science of the laws of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life. The source material for psychology is the facts of internal experience - memories, experiences, volitional impulses, etc. General psychology discovers and explores the laws of mental life (the problem of body and soul, reality, consciousness, perception, memory, attention), applied psychology deals with problems of mental and spiritual development of a person, issues of education and training (child and youth psychology), joint life of people (social psychology, mass psychology), etc. The research practice of psychology is inseparable from the social, from public needs related to solving the problems of training, education, personnel selection , stimulating the activities of the individual and the team. At the same time, as a result of contacts with other sciences, psychology itself is enriched with new ideas and approaches that develop its content. The study of problems of “artificial intelligence”, computerization, on the one hand, creativity, on the other, is becoming an important area of ​​psychology in the modern era. Along with them, social psychology and management psychology are rapidly developing, and the problems of the role of the “human factor” in the development of society and in management processes are being solved.

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PSYCHOLOGY

from Greek psyche - soul and logos - doctrine, science), the science of the laws and mechanisms of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life activity, mediated by a subjective external image. reality and an active attitude towards it.

For centuries, the phenomena studied by P. were designated by the term “soul” and were considered the subject of one of the branches of philosophy, which in the 16th century. received the name "P." The nature of the soul and the nature of its connections with the body and external. were interpreted differently by the world. It was understood as either a supernatural, incorporeal principle, or a form of life of the same order of being as other natural phenomena. The development of medicine throughout its history has been deeply influenced by social practice (in particular, medical and pedagogical). This development takes place in the cultural system and is mediated by the achievements of both natural and social societies. Sci. Already in the era of antiquity, it was discovered that the organ of the psyche is the brain (Alk-meon), the dependence of sensory perceptions on the impact of material processes on the sense organs was clarified (Democritus), as well as differences in people’s temperaments on the structure of the body (Hippocrates).

The problem of a person’s knowledge of himself and the importance of his orientation towards morals. values ​​were set by Socrates, his student Plato presented the soul as an immaterial entity, independent of the body. Plato believed that the rational part of the human soul is aimed at specific things. ideal objects, which he contrasted with sensual earthly things.

The first holistic system of psychology was developed by Aristotle, who, rejecting Plato’s dualism, interpreted the soul as a way of organizing a body capable of life, as the activity of this body, inseparable from it. He approved the holistic and genetic. approach to the organization and behavior of living beings, developed an idea of ​​the levels of evolution of their psyche, comparing, in particular, the undeveloped soul of a child with an animal. Aristotle owns many concepts included in the basic. foundation psychol. knowledge: about abilities, about fantasy (perceptions and ideas were differentiated), about the difference between theoretical and practical reason, about the formation of character in the process of a person’s actions, about associations and their physiology. mechanism, etc.

A new era in the development of P. was opened by scientific research. revolution of the 17th century The principle of a strictly causal explanation of the work of the body was established, which appeared in the form of a device operating according to the laws of mechanics. Some philosophers taught that all mental health is subject to these laws. processes (T. Hobbes), others - only their lower forms (R. Descartes). Mechanical principle causality became the basis of the most important concepts of P.: reflex as a natural motor reaction of the body in response to external influences. incentives; association as such a connection of phenomena, in which the occurrence of one of them entails others; causal theory of perception, according to the cut it imprints the influence of external influences in the brain. object; the doctrine of affects as products of body activity. In line with the mechanistic methodology, these concepts were combined with dualism in the interpretation of man. The body, which only moves, was opposed to the soul, which only thinks. The new form of dualism was radically different from Plato’s dualism, since the body was understood as a machine independent of the soul, while the soul began to mean the individual, consciousness as the subject’s direct knowledge of the thoughts and states directly experienced by him. P. from the doctrine of the soul becomes the doctrine of consciousness or internal. experience given in introspection as a person’s perception of what is happening in his own mind (J. Locke). This concept of consciousness as an internally visible psychic by the individual. phenomena determined the development of the introspective direction in P., associated with associationism, according to its chapter. will explain, the principle is the association of these phenomena due to the contiguity and frequency of their combination.

In associationism itself, the interpretation of associations as connections that have a bodily basis (Locke, D. Hartley, J. Priestley) was opposed by an interpretation that attributed the laws of associations to the properties of consciousness itself (J. Berkeley, D. Hume, T. Brown). In associationism, an analytical approach has developed. approach to consciousness: it was assumed that from a small number of simple ideas the entire psyche gradually develops. human apparatus. This position had an impact on pedagogy, on resolving the question of how children should be formed. the mind, which at birth represents a “blank slate”, onto which experience writes its own writings.

Along with P. consciousness in the 17th-19th centuries. P. of the unconscious arose. It goes back to the philosophy of G. Leibniz, who gave important role the dynamics of unconscious ideas (perceptions), the awareness of which requires a special mental activity - apperception. This doctrine was developed by I. Herbart, who, using the experience of pedagogy (in particular, I. Pestalozzi), put forward the concept of “apperceptive mass” as a reserve of unconscious mental. elements, on which the specific ideas that appear in consciousness depend. This mass is acquired through individual experience and can be shaped by the teacher.

K ser. 19th century advances in neurophysiology and biology contributed to the emergence of fundamental concepts (categories) of P., edges thanks to widely deployed experiments. work acquired the opportunity to separate itself from both philosophy and physiology. The study of the functions of the sense organs led to the creation of psychophysics, a special branch of psychology that uses quantities, indicators, and scales to measure sensory processes (sensations). In the works of E. Weber and G. T. Fechner the basic principle was discovered. psychophysical law, according to which the intensity of sensation is equal to the logarithm of the strength of irritation. This refuted the opinion of I. Kant that the study of mental phenomena cannot reach the level of science due to the inapplicability of mathematics in P. methods. Along with psychophysics, these methods have been used experimentally. studies of reaction rates (G. Helmholtz, F. Donders), which became another important area of ​​P. Question. about whether the sensation depends on the structure of the organ or on the exercise led to a dispute between those who believed mental. the image is innate (nativism) or acquired through experience (empiricism). Subsequently, both concepts were revised: both about natural organization and about experience. The introduction of evolutionary ideas into P. was of decisive importance for giving these concepts new content. biology (C. Darwin, G. Spencer), from the point of view of the cut, the psyche began to be considered as the most important tool for adapting the organism to the environment. The organism acted as a flexible system, the integral factor in the development of the cut in phylogenesis and ontogenesis are mental. functions. These functions were now interpreted as properties of an organism striving for self-preservation, and not functions of disembodied consciousness. This led to the idea that they are realized as a reflex, i.e. include perception of external stimulus, the transformation of this perception in higher nerve centers and the appropriate response action of the organism in the environment. This required introducing an objective method into P. transform it from a science of consciousness into a science of mentally regulated behavior. However, the solution to this problem, first posed by I.M. Sechenov, became possible only later. In the initial period of formation of P. as a department. discipline, it was dominated by the introspective direction, presented in the 70s. 19th century its two leaders - W. Wundt and F. Brentano. In 1879, Wundt created the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig. P., following the example of the cut, similar institutions began to emerge in many places. countries of the world. He considered the subject of P. directly. experience of the subject, the method is specially trained introspection, which makes it possible to identify, through experiment, the primary elements of this experience - mental. processes, and the task is to discover the laws by which they flow. At the same time, it was considered that we were experimenting. Only the simplest processes are accessible to study, while complex ones (thinking) can be understood only through the analysis of cultural products (language, myth, art, etc.) in the system of a special science - ethnopsychology (psychology of nations, peoples, ethnic groups). Wundt believed ch. P.'s business is the study of the structure of consciousness (due to which his teaching is usually called structuralism). Brentano, for whom acts or functions of consciousness were the main ones, became the founder of functionalism in P. He saw P.’s task in identifying the acts of representing an object, judging it and its emotional evaluation. For this purpose it was supposed to use phenomenological. method. although different from introspective, it is also subjective, since it was believed that consciousness reveals its secrets only to its bearer - the subject. However, a widespread experiment. the work went beyond these ideas, making it possible to establish patterns and facts, the value of which did not depend on introspection. They related to the processes of memory, attention, and skill development (G. Ebbinghouse, J. Cattell, W. Bryan, N. Harder, etc.).

At the same time, various types of branches of P., where objective-genetic, comparative-historical methods were asserted. methods, as well as new methods of quantity, analysis. Differential psychology arose, studying individual differences between people (V. Stern, A. F. Lazursky). For its purposes, a test method is being developed (F. Galton, A. Binet, etc.). The wide dissemination of this method was due to the needs of practice - schools, clinics, industries. The technique of processing data on individual differences and correlations between them is being improved (C. Spearman). The concepts of mental age and general talent are put forward. Tests are being created for career guidance and prof. selection. The massive nature of testing prompted the transition from individual tests to group ones and the development of test standardization procedures.

In teaching practice, along with tests, which have become Ch. channel for using P. data in school, used in the interests of scientific research. justification of pedagogy and other P. methods, in particular experiment (E. Meiman, A. P. Nechaev), questionnaires (G. S. Hall), objective observation (K. Gros), clinical. analysis. P.'s rapprochement with pedagogy progressed in different ways. directions. Pedagogical construction project psychology on the principles of natural science. knowledge about the child was offered by P.F. Kapterev. The role of muscle activity in the formation of children. mind was illuminated by P.F. Lesgaft, who also carried out the study of “school types.”

In the beginning 20th century the idea of ​​creating a special one is born. complex science of children - pedology. In relation to children. psyche, along with the direction, which explained its development based on the principles of evolution. biology, concepts are emerging that are oriented towards cultural history. approach and making the child’s behavior dependent on social factors (N. Lange, T. Ribot, J. Mead). Study of children psyche undermined trust in introspection (“inner vision”) as Ch. P.’s method encouraged us to rely on objective indicators of the structure, functions and development of the psyche. The achievements of zoopsychology and history also had a profound impact on the change in P.’s appearance and her departure from the subjective method. and ethnic. P. (studying the psyche of peoples at different historical stages of cultural development). Following the systematization of ethnographic. facts, comparative experiments have been widely developed. studies of perception, memory, thinking in children and adults living in different conditions. crops Appeal to genetically different levels of mental development were exposed by the imperfections of methodological and logical. installations of both structural and functional P. consciousness.

At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. P. is entering a period of acute crisis, ext. a manifestation of which was the emergence of a number of new schools. Their concepts reflected the demands of the logic of scientific development. knowledge, the need to transform the basic. categories of P., going beyond the version that mental. processes begin and end in the consciousness of the subject. max. Three schools influenced P.'s progress: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and Freudianism. Behaviorism rejected the centuries-old tradition in understanding the subject of psychology, proposing to consider as such not consciousness, but behavior as a system of objectively observable reactions of the body to external conditions. irritants. The problem of including the real actions of the organism in the environment into the field of psychology was first posed by I.M. Sechenov, who believed that mental the act is performed as a reflex and therefore includes, along with the center. the link (consciousness) is both the perception of signals coming from outside and the response of bodily actions. Further transformation of the concept of reflex was associated with the need to explain how the body acquires new forms of behavior. This problem was solved by I.P. Pavlov, whose doctrine of conditioned reflexes laid the foundation for the objective study of a wide range of mental health. phenomena (primarily the learning process). V. M. Bekhterev put forward the concept of associative reflexes, which, like conditioned reflexes, are acquired and not innate. Thus, the most important concept for P. about experience acquired new content, since it was translated into natural science. language: experience is not limited to what consciousness imprints and processes; it means the transformation of the actual actions of the organism. In the same years, from other points of view, the variability of behavior in situations requiring action, for which the body does not have a ready-made program, was studied by E. Thorndike. In order to explain these actions, he proposed the formula “trial, error and accidental success”, which did not require an appeal to consciousness as a regulator of the body’s relationship with the environment.

Thus, the introduction of the category of behavior into P. proceeded with different sides Behaviorism made it fundamental. Its limitations lay in the fact that behavior was opposed to consciousness, the reality of which was generally rejected. For all subjective phenomena, a bodily equivalent was sought (for example, for thinking, as it is associated with speech, the reaction of the vocal cords). Human behavior was biologized; no qualities or differences were seen between it and the behavior of animals. This reduced the value of the positive contribution of behaviorism to the development of P. problems.

If behaviorism opposed behavior to consciousness, then Freudianism contrasted the unconscious psyche. The prerequisite for this was the achievements of pathopsychology in the study of neuroses, suggestion, hypnosis (A. Liebeau, I. Bernheim, J. Charcot), which revealed clinical evidence. material failure of traditions. interpretation of motivation as driven by fully conscious motives of human actions. Based on facts gleaned from the clinic of neuroses, 3. Freud concluded that all mental disorders are predetermined. acts of energy of sexual desires that are irrational and hostile to consciousness; phenomena of consciousness serve as a masking mechanism for them in the face of a social environment opposing the individual. Prohibitions on the part of the latter, causing mental trauma, suppress the energy of unconscious drives, which eventually break through in roundabout ways in the form of neuroticism. symptoms, dreams, forgetting unpleasant things, etc.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology (M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Levin, K. Koffka) sought to prove that behavior is determined by holistic conscious mental. structures (gestalts), which arise and change according to special laws. These structures were given a universal character. They were considered organizers of the psyche and behavior at all levels and in all forms. Therefore, like the behaviorists, with whom they sharply polemicized, the Gestaltists did not see any qualitative differences between the human psyche and the animal psyche.

All three main schools in P. turned to children. psyche, trying to substantiate their concepts empirically. material gleaned from her research. A number of their concepts, identified facts, and raised problems stimulated the development of philosophy and made it possible to reveal the limitations of previous ideas. In particular, Gestalt psychology has shown the inconsistency of “atomistic” psychology, which decomposes complex and holistic psychol. education at the department elements; behaviorism destroyed concepts that reduce the psyche to phenomena of consciousness and ignore real practicalities. actions as the most important factor in the history of behavior. Question. about the role of unconscious motivation in this story, about the complex relationships between different. Freudianism placed great emphasis on the levels of personality organization.

Dr. The directions of the period of crisis of P. were French. sociologist school, which relied on the ideas of E. Durkheim and explained mental health. properties of an individual by his inclusion in the system social relations, and the “understanding” psychology of V. Dilthey, which contrasted itself with natural science. P. on the basis that the human soul can only be understood by correlating it with the values ​​of culture (a causal explanation is not applicable to it). Both of these schools influenced the study of children's problems. P. The first deduced the development of mental. functions in a child from the process of his communication with other people, the second interpreted the development of personality based on the idea that it is determined by its focus on various. classes of cultural values.

In all these concepts, the need for scientific research was inadequately reflected. P. include in the system of its categories concepts covering the psychosocial relations of the subject and his personally significant experiences. The logic of P.'s development was faced with the task of overcoming the splitting of its concepts, methods, and explanatory principles into those devoid of internal ones. connections fragments of knowledge. The integrity of P. as a science was lost. This gave rise to attempts to overcome the crisis by integrating ideas and categories that were developed in various schools and systems opposing each other. A reflection of this trend was the inclusion of new concepts by previous schools in their original schemes in order to avoid the one-sidedness of these schemes. In behaviorism, the concept of “intermediate variables” (E. Tolman) comes to the fore. This direction was called neobehaviorism. It took the path of studying the center. physiol. processes unfolding between the sensory “input” and the motor “output” of the body system (K. Hull). This trend finally wins in the 50-60s, in particular under the influence of computer programming experience. The view on the role of neurophysiol is also changing. mechanisms, which are now considered as an integral component of the general structure of behavior (D. Hebb, K. Pribram). Attempts are being made to extend the objective method to the study of the sensory-imaginative aspect of life, without reducing it to motor functions, as was typical of early behaviorism. Freudianism is also undergoing a transformation. Neo-Freudianism emerges - a movement that connects the unconscious psyche. dynamics with the action of sociocultural factors (K. Horney, G. Sullivan, E. Fromm) and using psychotherapy not only to treat neuroses, but also to relieve normal people of the feeling of fear of a hostile social environment.

Along with new variants of behaviorism and Freudianism, humanistic (“existential”) psychology arose (K. Rogers, A. Maslow, G. Allport, etc.), which claims that the use of scientific. concepts and objective aspects of personality research leads to its “dehumanization” and disintegration, and impedes its desire for self-development.

Installation on the construction of an integrative mental scheme. activities were distinguished by the work of the school of J. Piaget, who took into account the experience of the French. psychologists who explained the functions of an individual’s consciousness by the internalization of interindividual relationships, as well as the Freudian version of the antagonism between the child’s drives and the need to adapt thinking to the requirements of the social environment, as well as the Gestalt principle of mental integrity. organizations. Correlating these provisions with your own program for studying knowledge. processes, Piaget created an innovative theory of their development in ontogenesis.

In the USSR after Oct. During the revolution, Perestroika unfolded on the basis of Marxism. In heated discussions, ideas about the psyche as a function of the brain, adequate to Marxist methodology, were formed, but qualitatively different from its physiology. functions, about its conditioning at the human level by the social environment, about the need to introduce objective methods into psychology, about the dialectics of the development of consciousness. These provisions were defended by K. N. Kornilov, P. P. Blonsky, M. Ya. Basov and others. Formation of owls. P. proceeded taking into account the achievements of psychophysiol. concepts of I. P. Pavlov, Bekhterev, A. A. Ukhtomsky, N. A. Bernstein and others. Ch. task, the solution of which focused the efforts of the owls. psychologists, was to overcome the splitting of concepts about consciousness and behavior. An attempt to approach this problem, put forward by the general course of development of world medicine, by simply combining these concepts, undertaken by Kornilov in a concept he called reactology, turned out to be unsuccessful. A radical transformation of both concepts was required in order to integrate them into new system. This approach determined the formation of the largest in the Soviet Union. P. of the school of L. S. Vygotsky, among the achievements of the cut are the most. significant are cultural-historical. the theory of mental development and the theory of activity developed by A. N. Leontiev. This school proceeds from the position that the psychic. human functions are mediated by his involvement in the world of culture and real activity in it, incl. including communication activities. Between practical ext. activities, the edges of the former P. were either completely withdrawn from the study, or were reduced to reactions to stimuli, and internal. psychic activity there are mutual transitions. Along with the transformation of external actions into internal (mental) ones, the process of translating the latter into objective forms, in particular products of creativity, unfolds. The introduction of the category of activity made it possible to more adequately approach the problem of biological and social in the development of the human psyche, to trace how, in the process of assimilation by an individual, social history. experience transforms its original biol. needs, innate ways of behavior and cognition. The principle is dialectical. unity of consciousness and activity formed the basis of numerous. owl research psychologists (S. L. Rubinshtein, B. M. Teploye, A. R. Luria, etc.).

Dependence of human behavior on biol. and social factors determine the originality of his research in P., which develops in a “dialogue” between data about nature and culture, integrated into its own. concepts.

The doctrine of consciousness as an active reflection of reality, conditioned by social history. practice, allowed with new methodological. positions develop basic. problems of P., among which stood out psychophysiological (about the relationship of the psyche to its bodily substrate), psychosocial (about the dependence of the psyche on social processes and its active role in their implementation by specific individuals and groups), psychopractical (about the formation of the psyche in the process of real practical activity and the dependence of this activity on its mental regulators - images, operations, motives, personal properties), psychognostic (about the relationship of sensory and mental mental images to the reality they reflect) and other problems. The development of these problems was carried out on the basis of the principles of determinism (disclosure of the conditionality of phenomena by the action of the factors producing them), systematicity (interpretation of these phenomena as internally connected components of an integral mental organization), development (recognition of transformation, changes in mental processes, their transition from one level to another , the emergence of new forms of mental processes). P. was a collection of departments. industries, many of which have become independent. status.

Already in the 2nd half. 19th century psychophysiology has developed, the edges are explored by physiol. mechanisms that implement mental phenomena and processes. K ser. In the 20th century, based on advances in the study of higher nervous activity, psychophysiology reached a high level of development both in the USSR and in many other countries. zarub. countries.

Dr. branch P. - honey. P., edges was initially focused on the practice of psychotherapy. Subsequently, it differentiated into honey itself. P., covering issues of psychotherapy, psychohygiene, pathopsychology, studying the psyche of the mentally ill both theoretically. purposes, and in the interests of therapeutic psychiatric. practice, and neuropsychology, solving problems of localizing the defect in focal brain lesions and restoring impaired functions.

Children have received widespread development. and ped. P., closely related to each other, since mental. The development of a child occurs in conditions of his assimilation of historically developed knowledge, skills and norms of behavior, and the process of training and education must take into account age-related psychol. characteristics of students and the achieved level of development of their personality. Ped. P. also studies the learning process of adults. In addition, age-related P. has also appeared, covering changes in the psyche during all periods of an individual’s life, including the period of aging. T.O., Det. P. can be considered as a section of age P.

Industrial development production set P. the task of studying labor processes in order to increase their efficiency by rationalizing the engine. operations, adapting tools and machines to human capabilities, improving eco-logical. conditions at production and prof. selection. In this regard, the P. of labor stood out. In the conditions of automation of production, the perception and processing of information, decision making and other complex mental processes have come to the fore. processes; specialist. Research required issues of distribution of functions between the human operator and the machine and their coordination. Engineer appeared. P., which is important not only for the rationalization of automation. control systems, but also for their design. From the beginning 60s the cosmic P., studying the features of human activity in space conditions. flights.

Study of psychology The characteristics of sports and activities are determined by the subject of sports.

One of the most important areas of pedagogy is social psychology, which studies human activity in groups—work, educational, etc., having both a formal and informal nature, as well as various types of work. internal structure. The subject of social psychology also includes issues of the formation of interpersonal relationships in a team, the differentiation of functions (roles) in it, and issues of psychology. compatibility of participants in collective activities and their management. Social P. is closely related to the problems of the influence of means on a person mass media and with P. speech communication, studied by psycholinguistics. Unlike plural directions abroad social P., psychologizing societies. phenomena, father social psychology considers the processes it studies as determined by objective relations in society, which are governed by the laws of history. development. With socio-psychol. problems are closely related to certain issues of P. education.

In general P. there was also a section devoted to P. technical, scientific. and artist creativity, which connected P. with science and aesthetics.

Personality psychology acts as a special section, integrating the facts and patterns of almost all areas of personality, especially social and age-related psychology.

Differential-integration the processes that turned P. into a “bush” of industries are determined by the demands of various. branches of practice that confront P. with problems specific to each of them. These problems are, as a rule, complex and therefore are developed in many ways. disciplines. P.’s inclusion in interdisciplinary research and participation in it is productive only when it enriches it with concepts, methods, explanations, and principles inherent only to it. At the same time, as a result of contacts with other sciences, philosophy itself is enriched with new ideas and approaches that develop its content and categorical apparatus, ensuring its integrity as an independent entity. science.

The transfer to electronic devices of certain functions that were previously the unique property of the human brain, such as the functions of accumulating and processing information, management and control, had an important impact on the further development of the human brain. This made it possible to widely use cybernetic technology in P. and information theoretical concepts and models (which have become particularly widespread in cognitive psychology), which contributed to the formalization and mathematization of psychology and the introduction of cybernetic technologies into it. style of thinking. Automation and cybernetization have sharply increased interest in operational diagnostics and prognosis, the effective use and cultivation of those human functions that cannot be transferred to electronic devices, especially creative abilities that provide further scientific and technological development. progress. The study of problems of “artificial intelligence”, on the one hand, and creative activity, on the other, are becoming modern. era in important areas of P. Along with them, research related to politics, demographics, and ecology is rapidly developing. and other pressing problems of our time.

Lit.: Leontiev A. N., Problems of mental development, M.; Rubinstein S.L., Fundamentals of General Psychology, M.; his, Problems of General Psychology, M.; Petrovsky A.V., History of the Soviet Union. psychology, M., 1967; Let's experiment. psychology, ed.-comp. P. Fresse and J. Piaget, trans. from French, in. 1-6, M., 1966-78; Yaroshevsky M. G., Psychology in the 20th century, M.; his, History of Psychology, M.; Yaroshevsky M. G., Antsyferova L. I., Development and modern times. state of foreign exchange psychology, M., 1974; Smirnov A. A., Development and modern times. psychological state sciences in the USSR, M., 1975; LuriaA. R., On the place of psychology among social and biological sciences. Sciences, VF, 1977, No. 9; Piaget J., Psychology, interdisciplinary connections and the system of sciences, in the book: Reader on Psychology, ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M., 1977; Ananyev B. G., Man as an object of knowledge, in his book: Izbr. psychol. works, vol. 1, M., 1980; Volkov K.N., Psychology about ped. problems, M., 1981; Psychol. science and pedagogy practice, K., 1983; Lomov B.F., Methodology, and theoretical. problems of psychology, M., 1984; Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G., History of Psychology, M., 1994; Psycho-logy: a study of a science, ed. by S. Koch, v. l-6, N.Y., 1959-63; Classics in psychology, ed. by T. Shipley, N.Y., 1961; The science of psychology: critical reflections, ed. by D. P. Schultz, N. Y., 1970. M. G. Yaroshevsky.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Introduction

.The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories

1Psychology as a science

2Object and subject of psychology

1The place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge

2General psychology

3Industrial psychology

.Test task

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Psychology dates back thousands of years. The term "psychology" - (from the Greek. psyche- soul, and logos-science) means “the study of the soul.” It arose in ancient times, at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e, when people first began to ask questions about the meaning of the soul, about the differences in the souls of animals and humans, about the functions and abilities of the soul.

The study of psychology cannot be reduced to a simple listing of the problems, ideas and ideas of various psychological schools. In order to understand them, you need to understand their internal connection, the unified logic of the formation of psychology as a science.

Why study psychology? We all live among people and, by the will of circumstances, we must understand and take into account the psychology of people, take into account our individual characteristics of the psyche and personality. We are all psychologists to one degree or another. But our everyday psychology will only benefit and be enriched if we supplement it with scientific psychological knowledge.

Psychology has come a long way in development; there has been a change in the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the knowledge gained. Psychology is very closely related to many other sciences: exact, natural, medical, philosophical, etc. It is a very extensive system of sciences, which includes both fundamental branches of psychology, united by the term “general psychology,” which actually studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed. It also summarizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts, as well as special psychological sciences.

1. The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories

.1 Psychology as a science

Psychology, as a science, has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. Few people know psychology as a system of proven knowledge, mainly only those who specifically study it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe them in other people. In scientific usage the term " psychology"appeared for the first time in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that dealt with the study of so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, i.e., those that every person easily detects in his own consciousnessas a result introspection. Later, in the 17th-19th centuries, the scope of research by psychologists expanded significantly, including unconscious mental processes (the unconscious) and activityhuman.In the 20th century, psychological research went beyond the phenomena around which it had been concentrated for centuries. In this regard, the name “psychology” has partly lost its original, rather narrow meaning, when it applied only to subjective, phenomena directly perceived and experienced by humans consciousness. However, according to the centuries-old tradition, this science still retains its former name.

Since the 19th century psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge.

1.2 Object and subject of psychology

To begin with, it is worth introducing the definitions of “subject” and “object”.

Object- part of the surrounding reality towards which human activity is directed.

Item- part of the object of interest to the researcher.

Object of psychologyis the psyche.

In psychology, as a science, there have been two approaches to understanding the psyche.

· Idealistic, in which the psyche is viewed as primary reality, existing independently of the material world.

· Materialistic, it says that the psyche is property of the brainprovide the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Subject of psychologyis multifaceted, as it includes many processes, phenomena, and patterns.

Under subjectGeneral psychology assumes a pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as individual characteristics of its manifestation.

What is the subject of studying psychology? First of all, psychehumans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena.

With the help of some, such as, for example, sensations and perception, attentionand memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate it communicationwith people, directly control actions and actions.

They are called mental properties and states of personality, including needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness. In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.

1. Psyche - a subjective image of the objective world, forms in the process of cognition, activity and communication.

In the psyche, phenomena such as (Figure 1) are distinguished:

Rice. 1 Types of mental phenomena.

v Mental processes- these are elementary units that we can distinguish in mental activity, its “atoms”.

)Cognitive:

Ø Feeling(mental reflection of individual properties and states of the external environment that directly affect our senses)

Ø Perception(mental process of forming an image of objects and phenomena of the external world.)

Ø Thinking(the ability to solve new, urgent problems in situations where previous, already known solutions do not work.)

Ø Performance(the process of mentally recreating images of objects and phenomena that currently do not affect the human senses.)

Ø Imagination(this is a reflection of reality in new, unusual, unexpected combinations and connections.)

)Integrative:

Ø Speech(this is the ability to communicate using words, sounds and other elements of language.)

Ø Memory(the ability to remember, save and at the right time retrieve (reproduce) the necessary information.)

)Emotional:

Ø Emotions(quick and short elements of feelings, their situational manifestation.)

4) Regulatory

Ø Will(the ability to maintain the direction of one’s activities despite difficulties, obstacles, and distractions.)

Ø Attention(concentrated energy of consciousness directed at a particular object.)

v Mental conditions

Ø Mood(a fairly long emotional process of low intensity, forming an emotional background for ongoing mental processes.)

Ø Frustration(a mental state that arises in a situation of real or perceived impossibility of satisfying certain needs, or, more simply, in a situation of a discrepancy between desires and available capabilities.)

Ø Affect(an emotional process characterized by short duration and high intensity, accompanied by pronounced motor manifestations and changes in the functioning of internal organs.)

Ø Stress(a state of mental stress that arises in a person in the process of activity in the most complex, difficult conditions, as in everyday life, and under special circumstances.)

v Mental properties

Ø Temperament(stable combination of individual personality characteristics associated with dynamic rather than meaningful aspects of activity.)

Ø Character(this is a set of basic personality traits on which forms of social behavior and human actions that are designed to influence others depend.)

Ø Focus(attitudes that have become personality traits.)

Ø Capabilities(these are personality traits that are conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.)

2. Consciousness - the highest stage of mental development, the result of the comprehensive development of a person in the process of communication and work.

. Unconscious - a form reflecting reality in which a person is not aware of its sources, and the reflected reality merges with experiences (dreams).

. Behavior - external manifestation of a person’s mental activity, his actions and actions.

. Activity - a system of goals, objectives, actions and operations aimed at realizing human needs and interests.

2. Psychology, its main branches and place in the system of sciences

.1 The place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge

Sciences related to psychology:

Ø Philosophyis the ideological and methodological basis of psychology

Ø Natural sciences (biology, physics)help to study the physiological processes occurring in the nervous system and brain and reveal the processes, mechanisms and functions of the psyche.

Ø Medical Sciencesallow us to understand the pathologies of mental development and find ways to solve them (psychotherapy).

Ø Historical Sciences,show how the psyche developed at various stages of the evolution of society.

Ø Sociology,helps solve problems of social psychology.

Ø Pedagogical Sciences,help in training, education, personality formation.

Ø Exact sciences (mathematical),provide quantitative methods for collecting and processing data.

Ø Technical Sciences,help in the development of technical means for studying the development and correction of the psyche.

Ø Cybernetics,helps to study the processes of mental self-regulation.

.2 General psychology

General psychologyis a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

Methods for studying general psychology.

v Observation - This is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term, selective, continuous and special.

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

Ø Setting goals and objectives;

Ø Definition of the situation, subject and object;

Ø Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;

Ø Determining how data is maintained;

Ø Processing of received data.

External surveillance(by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also introspection. It can be either immediate, in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

v Conversation As a psychological method, it involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life, interviews, questionnaires and different types of questionnaires.

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

v Experiment - this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions.

v Another method - tests . These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, and based on the results of the tests, the presence of certain mental qualities and the level of their development in the test subjects is determined. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Subject of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

Object of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as forms of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research in its composition, there are currently general theories psychology, which is guided by different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it.

2.3 Industrial psychology

Industrial psychology -individual branches of psychology that arose in the process of solving specific practical and theoretical problems.

Branches of psychology can be divided into:

v Development principle

ØAge

ØComparative

ØPedagogical

Ø Special (pathopsychological)

v Attitude to the individual and society

Ø Social psychology

Ø Personality psychology

v Types of activities

ØThe psyche of work

ØThe psyche of communication

Ø Psychology of sports

Ø Medical psychology

Ø Military psychology

Ø Legal psychology, etc.

Examples of some branches of psychology

Educational psychologystudies the human psyche in the process of his training and education, establishes and uses the laws of the psyche as he masters knowledge, skills and abilities. This science studies psychological problems and management of the educational process. In addition, the main problems of educational psychology are the study of factors influencing student performance, features of interaction and communication between teacher and student. Pedagogical psychology is divided into the psychology of education, which studies the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, and the psychology of education, which studies the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation. psychology observation conversation test

Developmental psychologyClosely related to pedagogy, it studies the characteristics of the human psyche at different stages of its development - from birth to death. It is divided into child psychology, psychology of adolescence, psychology of adulthood, geront psychology, etc. The central problems of developmental psychology are the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the progress, usefulness of the content and conditions of the elements of the child’s mental development, as well as the organization of optimal forms of children’s activities and communication, psychological assistance during periods of age-related crises, in adulthood and old age.

Social psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by the fact of their association into social groups. It reveals the psychological patterns of relationships between the individual and the team, determines the psychological compatibility of people in the group; studies such phenomena as leadership, cohesion, the process of making group decisions, problems of social development of the individual, his assessment, stability, suggestibility; the effectiveness of the influence of the media on the individual, especially the spread of rumors, fashion, bad habits and rituals.

Personality psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the mental properties of a person as a holistic entity, as a certain system of mental qualities, has an appropriate structure, internal relationships, is characterized by individuality and is interconnected with the surrounding natural and social environment.

3. Test task

The subject of psychology is:

a) behavioral science;

b) science of the soul;

c) scientific research of behavior and mental processes in order to apply the acquired knowledge in practice;

d) science of consciousness;

e) the science of the general laws of evolution and functioning of the psyche, mental processes as specific forms of life activity of animals and humans.

Choose the correct answer. Justify your choice.

Answer: D, because.

Psychology, as a science, is very multifaceted and affects many aspects of study (soul, behavior, consciousness, psyche, etc.). Definition subject of psychologysays that the subject of general psychology assumes the pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as the individual characteristics of its manifestation. Referring to quotes from P.V. Dobroselsky: “Psychology is the science of the patterns, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals”; “Psychology is the science of the patterns of functioning and development of the psyche, based on the representation of introspection of special experiences that are not attributable to the outside world,” we can assume that the answer I have chosen is correct.

Conclusion

The science of psychology is multifaceted, it is closely connected and intertwined with many other sciences, and covers different areas of studied activity.

Psychology studies the human psyche, character, heredity, human activity, relationships in society, a person’s attitude towards himself, features of cognition and consciousness, methods of perception and understanding.

In connection with all this variety of subjects of psychology, and its connections with other sciences, essentially sterile questions arose about whether it is a natural science or a humanitarian one, what should be its methodology - biology or philosophy.

An analysis of the historical path of development of psychology shows that its uniqueness and value as a science lies precisely in its interdisciplinary nature, in the fact that it is built both as a natural science (objective and experimental), and at the same time, as a humanities science. Its issues include issues of moral development, the formation of a worldview, and human value orientations. We can say that psychology borrows the experimental basis, approach to material and its processing from natural science, while the approach to interpreting the received material and methodological principles - from philosophy.

psychology observation conversation test

References

Tutorials:

Ostrovsky E.V. Basics of psychology. - M.: INFRA-M: University textbook, 2012.

Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012.

Psychology. Course of lectures: Textbook / V.G. Krysko-M.: University textbook: SRC INFRA-M, 2013.-251 p.

Internet resources:://4brain.ru/psy/obshhaja-psihologija.php

"Psychologos" Encyclopedia of practical psychology"

http://www.psychologos.ru/articles/view/voobrazhenie

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