Other types of classifications according to. Classification and its role in cognition. Different types of classifications

One of the special types of division is classification. This is a systematic, consistent division of concepts with the distribution of types into an interdependent system, within the framework of which the latter are divided into subspecies, subspecies are also divided into division members, etc.

The classification has great value and is used for the most part for the purposes of science and it is precisely because of this that it exists long time. Classifications, often used in science, are subject to changes and additions, but despite this, they are more constant than simple division. The purpose of classification is to systematize and preserve knowledge. Therefore, it has high precision, clarity and stability. Division members are usually reflected in various kinds of tables, diagrams and codes.

There are classifications of plants, animals, legal classifications. Often classifications include huge amount elements. Within the framework of the classification, these elements are combined into a single system, which makes access to its individual parts and elements convenient and quick. The lack of classification would lead to chaos in a large amount of unsystematized information.

It is impossible not to note the relativity of any classification, which is associated with the ambiguity of many objects, phenomena, and processes. Therefore, it is often not possible to classify a particular phenomenon into one group. From the question of the ambiguity of phenomena arises the problem of choosing a basis for classification. The same concept can, depending on the chosen basis, express different objects, phenomena or be interpreted from one side or another.

Scientific classification is always an evolving system. It changes, and as information accumulates, its structure improves. It happens that a new, more complete and developed classification replaces the previous one. Therefore, it is impossible to limit operations on classifications to their formation alone. It is necessary to take into account changes in the body of knowledge about the subject, the dynamics of social relations, and many other factors, since any information, including that fixed within various classifications, is obtained by a person exclusively from the surrounding world. Accordingly, it is necessary to make the necessary changes in a timely manner.

An example of an ambiguous phenomenon is the family. Despite the fact that this institution is called social, limit it to only one or two areas social life impossible.

Classification can be carried out according to a species-forming characteristic, or it can be dichotomous. The classification of animals, numbering more than one and a half million species, is obviously based on the use of a species-forming character. Dichotomous classification is based on the features of the dichotomous division of concepts.

Classification also happens natural And auxiliary. The difference between them is that the first is carried out on essential grounds, while the second - on non-essential ones. Natural classification allows you to determine the properties of an individual classification element, knowing the general characteristics of this classification or another element. Auxiliary classification is needed so that you can quickly and correctly solve emerging problems. This requires prompt, quick access to one or another classification element. Convenient search and selection of the desired item often serves as the basis for effective activities. It is the achievement of the goals of efficiency, speed and convenience that determines the use of non-essential grounds. Such a classification does not give us any idea about the properties of the object. We are all familiar with such classifications. There are many of them and they are widely used in human life. How often do we take a notebook with phone numbers marked alphabetically by the names of our acquaintances? This is an auxiliary classification. Having picked up a book dedicated to a particular subject of science, first of all we open the alphabetical subject index. This is also an auxiliary classification.

When creating classifications, operations on classes are used. They allow you to achieve the desired result and obtain the classification that is necessary in at the moment. The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and negation are distinguished.

Addition(merging classes). When using this operation, several groups (classes) are combined into one classification containing all the elements of those classes that are combined.

Subtraction distinguishes separate classes from a larger class. The result is a class from which the elements of the selected class have been removed.

Multiplication(class intersection). There is a class of elements that are common to several classes. They are determined using the multiplication operation.

Negation(education, addition). With this operation new class objects are removed from a more general class and considered separately, as new.

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Educational institution

Belorussian state university transport

Department of Philosophy, History and Political Science

Test №1

in the discipline "Logic"

Classification and its role in cognition

Gomel 2008

Work plan:

4.Logic problems

Introduction

Quite a wide range of names have a multi-level structure, the identification of which is impossible as a result of a single division. The need to detect species of different orders in the structure of the volume of a generic name prompts us to resort to multi-stage, sequential division for these purposes. Its essence consists in highlighting the generic name of first-order species in the volume, in the volumes of which second-order species are then identified in relation to the original volume. The latter are divided into third-order types, etc. Such sequential division is called classification.

In contrast to simple division, carried out arbitrarily, depending on immediate needs, classifications are stable systems for distributing objects into classes that are preserved in science. The stable nature of the classification is due to the fact that they are based on the most significant signs from a scientific point of view, due to which they consolidate the results of a long process of cognition of objects in a certain area of reality. Scientific classifications in a condensed form contain a vast amount of information about the objects being studied.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that classification plays a big role in scientific knowledge and practical activities people. It allows us to correctly navigate the world around us, make the right decisions and carry out effective (leading to achieving the goals we need) actions.

Purpose of the work:

1)Study the concept and functions of classification;

)Analyze classification rules and errors.

1. Concept, classification functions

Species concepts resulting from dividing the volume of a generic concept, in turn, can themselves be subject to division. For example, numbers can be divided into real and imaginary, then real numbers into rational and irrational, in turn, rational numbers into whole fractions, etc. This division is called sequential. Consistent division is the basis of classification. Classification cannot be considered a special type of division along with division by modification of a characteristic and dichotomy, since both of these types of division can be used in it simultaneously.

Classification is the systematic distribution of objects into classes based on some common characteristic, carried out in such a way that each class occupies a strictly defined and precise fixed place in relation to other classes.

The term “classification” means both the process of distributing objects into classes and the result of this process, usually fixed in tables, diagrams, graphs, codes, etc.

Since classification represents a certain system of our knowledge about the objects of any field, it is characterized by specific features that distinguish it from other types of division.

Firstly, the basis or principle of classification should be the feature most suitable for finding objects in classification system or defining their properties.

Secondly, in contrast to the types of division discussed above, through which objects are divided depending on the scientific or practical need that arises at every step, the classification is stable, used in science and everyday life for a long time, a system of distributing objects into classes. The classification retains its meaning until it is replaced by a new, more advanced one.

Thirdly, if in the types of division we have considered the members of the division are only species of one order, then in the classification, in addition to this, species of other orders are sometimes indicated. Thus, in the classification, the division is carried out sequentially from the highest class to the lowest. It represents an extensive system of species concepts.

2. Types of classification. Natural and artificial classification

There are two types of classification: auxiliary and natural (scientific).

An auxiliary classification is created with the goal of quickly finding any individual item among the classified items. The purpose of this classification determines the principle of its construction. The auxiliary classification is based on some external insignificant feature, which, however, turns out to be useful in the search process.

Examples of auxiliary classification would be the distribution of students in a course in a list in alphabetical order, or the same distribution of library cards in alphabetical catalog etc. Knowing the order of the letters in the alphabet, we can easily and quickly find the name we need in the list or information about the book we are interested in in the catalog.

But knowing what place a particular object occupies in the auxiliary classification system does not make it possible to state anything about its properties. So, for example, the fact that student Arkhipov is listed first, and student Yakovlev - last, says absolutely nothing about their abilities and character traits. Therefore, the auxiliary classification is not scientific.

Unlike auxiliary natural classification represents the distribution of objects into classes based on their most significant characteristics. The most significant features of an object are those that determine its other features. For example, the most essential characteristic of a person is his ability to work. This sign predetermines the presence in a person of such characteristics as upright walking, the ability to communicate (work presupposes a team), the ability to think, etc.

Classification has a connection with the definition of concepts. Those characteristics in accordance with which the distribution of objects into classes is made must be distinctive species-forming characteristics. We have already seen that indicating the specific distinctive feature is the main task of definition, therefore knowledge of the classification of objects makes it possible to determine them. The more significant a feature underlies the classification, the deeper definitions can be given to the objects included in the classification system.

Thus, natural classification, in contrast to auxiliary classification, allows one to determine the properties of this object based on the place occupied in it by one or another object, without resorting to experimental verification. In some cases, natural classification makes it possible to detect a pattern in changes in the properties of classified objects, which makes it possible to foresee the existence of as yet undiscovered objects and predict their main characteristics. For example, based on the periodic table of elements D.I. Mendeleev predicted the existence of such elements, unknown at that time and later discovered, as gallium, scandium and germanium. Similarly, the American physicist Gell-Mann, based on his classification elementary particles predicted the existence of some particles unknown to him and determined their properties. Later these particles were discovered experimentally.

Although classification plays a huge role in cognition, this role cannot be absolute. Any classification is relative. The relativity of classification is due to two factors: firstly, the relativity of our knowledge and, secondly, the fact that in nature there are no sharp boundaries between individual species.

With the development of science, the classification is clarified and supplemented, as the human mind comprehends the ever deeper essence of things. Instead of one classification, another, more adequate (corresponding) to reality, can be created.

Over time, after being recognized as natural, a classification can turn into an artificial one if it turns out that it was based on an insignificant, secondary feature. Such a classification is rejected as unsuitable for science and practice. The history of science knows many similar examples.

The classification of plants created by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus also turned out to be artificial. Since the basis was based on an insignificant feature (the number of stamens and the method of their attachment to flowers), as a result of the classification, the elementary rules of division were not observed. Related groups of plants (for example, cereals) found themselves in different, extremely dissimilar classes. Conversely, completely dissimilar plants (for example, oak and one type of sedge) ended up in the same class.

The relative, approximate nature of the classification is also due to the fact that in nature there are no sharp demarcation lines separating a class of objects from another. There are many transitional forms that stand on the border between different classification groups, preserving the features of both one and the other group. F. Engels wrote about this: “Hard and fast lines (absolutely sharp demarcation lines) are incompatible with the theory of development. Even the dividing line between vertebrates and invertebrates is no longer absolute, just like between fish and amphibians; and the boundary between birds and reptiles is disappearing more and more every day.”

Classification always operates with concepts such as species, genus, class, accordingly distributing classified objects. According to F. Engels, these concepts “thanks to the theory of development have become fluid and thereby relative.” All this gives the classification a relative, approximate character. But even in this relative meaning, classification continues to remain a serious means of scientific knowledge, since, before exploring development and change, it is necessary to know what is changing and developing. Since every classification is built on a single principle, since it allows us to consider the classified objects in their unity, interconnection and interaction, it allows us to establish patterns of their development.

3. Rules and errors (traps) of classification

Classification is subject to all rules of logical division. In addition, it has its own special rules.

1. Continuity rule.The classification must be continuous. This means that when classifying objects, you need to move on to the closest types without skipping them. For example, when classifying members of sentences, it would be correct to first identify the main and minor members of sentences, then subdivide the main ones into subject and predicate, and the secondary ones into definition, addition, circumstance, etc. This will result in a consistent transition from the genus to the closest species, subspecies, etc. But the condition of continuity will be violated if we immediately move from the concept of a member of a sentence to the concepts of subject, predicate, definition, complement, circumstance, because the latter are not the closest species in relation to the concept of a member of a sentence. A violation of this rule will occur in the case of the list: the main member of the sentence, definition, addition, circumstance. Classification of this kind is called spasmodic, and the error allowed in this case is called a “jump in classification.”

In some cases, identifying the closest species is not an easy task. This is especially true for scientific research when knowledge invades the realm of the unknown. Here a prescription based on the following relationship may be useful: if the scope of the name A is included in the scope of the name A, then A is a closer species in relation to the genus A.

. Rule of materiality of grounds. Classification should be made according to essential characteristics. The criterion for the significance of a particular attribute is the ability of the object possessing it to serve as a means of solving the task at hand. The multiplicity of problems solved using the same objects gives rise to a multiplicity of classifications of these objects. To every graduate high school The modern classification (typology) of living beings is familiar. It contains the so-called taxonomic units (species, genera, families, orders, classes) are distinguished in such a way that the question of the origin of life becomes clear. The basis for this classification is the objective process of historical development of species.

But another, earlier classification is also known, belonging to the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus (1707-1778). Before him as a supporter of creationism, i.e. teachings about the creation of the world by God out of nothing, the question of the origin of species did not even arise, but, being an experienced and observant researcher, he could not help but notice many regularities in the kingdom of living beings. To bring it into a system convenient for use, Linnaeus proposed classifying organisms according to the similarity in the structure of their reproductive organs. Plants, in particular, were classified according to the number of stamens in the flower and the method of their attachment. As a result, lilac found itself in close proximity to the golden spikelet (both of them have two stamens), carrots - with currants (they have five stamens each), reeds were included in the same class with barberry (six stamens). The situation was similar in the animal system, where Linnaeus included unicellular organisms, mollusks, echinoderms, etc. into the class of worms. This approach gave the scientist the opportunity in many cases to remain in harmony with nature, but did not solve the main problems that biological science was already facing at that time.

Many peoples have their own classifications of living beings. The North American Navajo Indians classify living beings into speaking and non-speaking. Non-speaking creatures are then divided into animals and plants. Then, on the basis of obvious perceived properties, the first are divided into running, flying and crawling. Next, each group is once again divided into those moving during the day and those moving at night. It is easy to see that this classification is compiled in accordance with the similarities in the methods of hunting animals. It has been tested by the centuries-old practice of people living in certain conditions and is then completely justified.

classification grouping object sign

4. Logic problems

1. Will the requirement of adequacy (proportionality) of classification be violated?, if the volume of the “people” class is divided as follows: Slavs, Chinese, blacks, women, men, believers?

“People are divided into Slavs, Chinese, blacks, men, women, believers.” The requirement of adequacy (proportionality) is a rule of logical division, which states that each of the volumes A1, A2, ... An must be a type of volume A (in this case, “people”), and the sum of A1, A2, ... An must exhaust the entire volume A.

In this example, a violation of the rule of proportionality led to the error “incomplete division”, when not all species of the divisible genus are named and the sum of the volumes of the members of the division is less than the volume of the divisible name “people”.

It would be proportionate to divide the scope of the concept “people” into men and women (in this case, the presence of members of the division “Slavs” in this classification leads to a violation of the rule of the uniqueness of the base and the error “shift of the base”).

2. Establish the form and correctness of the following divisions, type of logical error:Logical forms are divided into statements and syllogisms. Syllogisms can be inductive or non-inductive. Fertilizers are divided into organic, phosphorus and potassium. The aircraft consists of a fuselage, wings, control system, and landing gear. Culture is divided into material, spiritual and moral. People can be both bad and good. People are divided into men, women and children.

1. Logical forms are divided into statements and syllogisms.

2. Syllogisms can be inductive or non-inductive. Dichotomous division. Correct in form, but not correct in content (syllogisms can only be deductive, i.e. “non-inductive” conclusions).

3. Fertilizers are divided into organic, phosphorus and potassium. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error “jump in division” (phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are types of inorganic fertilizers).

4. The aircraft consists of a fuselage, wings, control system, and landing gear. Analytical division is the division of a whole volume into parts.

5. Culture is divided into material, spiritual and moral. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “division with extra members” (an extra member of the division is moral culture).

6. People can be both bad and good. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “incomplete division” (there are people who are neither bad nor good).

7. People are divided into men, women and children. Division by modification of a characteristic. Error: “division with extra members” (extra member of division “children”).

3. Find the sum of the volumes of classes A and B (AUB) in each of the following cases: 1) poet (A) - prose writer (B); 2) sports facility (A) - stadium (B); 3) even natural number (A) - odd natural number (B); 4) the last letter of the Russian alphabet (A) is the thirty-third letter of the Russian alphabet (B); 5) king (A) - the current king of Poland (B).

a) Writer, b) sports facility, c) natural number, d) letter “I”, e) king.

References:

1.Barton V.I. Logic: Textbook. allowance / V.I. Barton. - Mn.: New knowledge, 2001. - 336 p. - (Social and humanitarian education).

2.Bocharov V.A., Markin V.I. Fundamentals of Logic: Textbook. - M.: INFRA - M, 1999. - 296 p.

.Voishvillo E.K., Degtyarev M.G. Logic: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing house VLADOS - PRESS, 2001. - 528 p.

.Getmanova A.D. Logic: Dictionary and problem book: Textbook. manual for university students. - M.: Humanist. ed. VLADOS center, 1998. -336 p.

.Logic: Textbook. allowance / V.F. Berkov, V.I. Barton, I.I. Dubinin and others; Under general ed. prof. V.F. Berkova. - Mn.: Higher. school, 1994. - 296 p.

.Logic: Textbook for universities / V.F. Berkov, Ya.S. Yaskevich, V.I. Pavlyukevich; Under general ed. prof. V.F. Berkova. - Mn.: TetraSystems, 2000. - 416 p.

.Logics. Ml.; BSU Publishing House, 1974. - 336 p.

.Collection of logic exercises: For universities. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional / Ed. A.S. Klevcheni and V.I. Barton. - Mn.: Universitetskoe, 1990. - 288 p.

A special type of division is classification , which represents the distribution of objects into groups (classes), in which each class has its own permanent, specific place.

The purpose of classification is to systematize knowledge, therefore it differs from division in that it is relatively stable in nature and persists for a more or less long time. In addition, the classification forms an expanded system, where each member of the division is again divided into new members, branching into many classes, usually fixed in tables, diagrams, codes, etc.

Classification is widely used in legal sciences. An example is a system of law that includes branches: public law, financial law, etc. Each branch of law includes legal institutions.

There are 2 types of classification:

Auxiliary

Natural

The auxiliary classification is based on an external, insignificant feature, which, however, becomes useful in the search process (alphabetical index, list of group students).

The basis of natural classification is the most significant feature. A classic example is the periodic table chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev.

At the same time, any classification is relative. Many phenomena of nature and social life cannot be unconditionally attributed to any specific group of phenomena. For example, the family as a socio-historical phenomenon cannot be entirely attributed to any one area of social life; the family is characterized by both material and spiritual processes. In addition, with the development of knowledge, classification, as a rule, changes, is supplemented, and sometimes replaced by a new, more accurate one. Therefore, no classification can be approached as complete. It is necessary to take into account that both reality itself and knowledge about it are in a continuous process of change and development.

Limitation and generalization of concepts.

Generalization is a logical operation during which the transition from a specific concept to a generic concept is carried out by discarding species-forming characteristics. The limit of generalization is category, as a concept with the widest scope, which does not have a generic characteristic (matter, consciousness, time).

Limitation is a logical operation during which a transition is made from a generic concept to a specific one by adding species-forming characteristics to the content. The limit limit is singular concept.

During the implementation of these logical operations, law of the inverse relationship between the volume and content of a concept. Logical operations of generalization and limitation are often used in the practice of thinking. Moving from the concept of one volume to the concept of another volume, we clarify the subject of our thought, and the thinking process becomes more specific and consistent.

General characteristics judgments. Judgment and proposal.

A judgment has a more complex organization than a concept. This is expressed in the fact that judgments consist of concepts (at least two) that are related to each other in a certain way. The structural complexity of judgment is also manifested in knitting. If a concept is expressed by a word or phrase, then a speech judgment is always represented by a sentence or group of sentences.

Judgment - this is a form of thinking in which it is affirmed or denied about objects, their characteristics and relationships. A judgment is expressed in the form of a declarative sentence. A proposition is either true or false.

If we take a simple elementary judgment, then we can always identify in it that part, the concept in which objects and phenomena in relation to which something is affirmed or denied are expressed. This part of the judgment, this concept is called the subject (subject of judgment) and is designated S.

In another part of the judgment, in another concept included in the judgment, some signs and actions are reflected that are affirmed or denied regarding the object or phenomenon expressed in S, i.e. confined to “what is affirmed” or “what is denied.” This part is called the predicate and is designated P (predicate).

S and P judgments are called terms of judgment.

In addition, the judgment expresses the connection between S and P. The connection can be expressed in one word (is, essence, is) or a group of words, or a dash, or a simple phrase of words.

The S of a judgment can be preceded by a quantifier: “all”, “none”, “some”. The quantifier indicates whether the proposition refers to the entire scope of the concept expressing S or to part of it.

Any judgment finds its expression in a sentence and is in unity with it. Accordingly, logical content is expressed in words. The logical predicate is also expressed in words.

The unity of judgment and proposal does not mean that they are one and the same thing. Not all sentences are judgments, but every judgment is a proposal. Difference between judgment and proposal:

1. logical S and P may not coincide with the grammatical subject and predicate;

2. the judgment is always three-membered (S, P and connective), the sentence is not always (main and secondary members);

3. The logical structure of a judgment is the same for all languages, but the grammatical structure of a sentence is different.

In almost any field of activity, a person is faced with the concept of classification, which is used to establish the order of phenomena, objects, etc. Classification, or, as it is often called, classification, is simply necessary for the logical distribution of the scope of a concept into separate varieties. Let's consider what classification is and why it is needed.

Basic definition of classification

Literally translated from Latin, the concept is defined as “to make a discharge.” Thus, it is clear that “classify” means “to subdivide,” “to order, to divide into categories.” A striking example of classification can be called the division in the animal world of classes into species, species into subspecies, etc. At the same time specific types, forming a class, have common characteristic features, according to which they are considered varieties of the latter.

Types of classification and why they are needed

There are two main types of classification - natural and artificial. In the first case, the division is based on essential features and is aimed at identifying the main similarities and differences between objects/phenomena. This classification has educational value.

Typology can be called synonymous with it, since this type is based on the concept of type as a unit of division. This helps to get a complete picture of a phenomenon or species and reveal it as much as possible. After all, the conventionality and relativity of the boundaries between subspecies requires clarification. In this case, classification helps to outline more realistic boundaries.

The second type is called artificial, because it is based not on identifying the main features, but on the selection of specific features that are convenient in certain cases. A synonym for this classification can be called systematization. A striking example of this is alphabetical catalogs.

After studying this topic, you will learn:

What are classes and subclasses;
- what is the basis for classification;
- what is inheritance of properties;
- why classification is needed;
- how to classify various objects;
- how computer documents are classified.

Classes and classification

Man has the inherent ability to generalize and organize the entire variety of objects. Each noun reflects a person’s idea of a large group of objects: a house, a table, a book. Objects of one group have characteristics common to the entire group, as well as some features that allow them to be distinguished from other objects.

It is human nature to identify several objects that are related by some characteristic, considering them as an independent object.

For example, about the violin, cello, viola, double bass, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, we say that these are “musical instruments.” Seeing cups, saucers, a sugar bowl, and a teapot on the table, we call it the general word “dishes.” These groups of objects have some general properties, they can be equally influenced to obtain a certain result. They usually exist in the same environment. Such groups of objects are called “classes”.

A class is a group of objects with the same set of characteristics.

The objects included in a class are called instances of the class. You need to understand that the objects that you have combined into a class with a common name according to some parameters differ from each other in specific parameter values. For example, balls, while maintaining the basic properties of this class of objects (lightness, elasticity), can differ in material (rubber, rubber, leather), color, size. Birds are called eagle and chicken, ostrich and hummingbird. Even within a narrow class, specimens can vary greatly: among the winged insects called “bees” there are queen bees, drones, and worker bees. This reveals an important property of classes - the variety of instances included in the class. These differences make it possible to distinguish narrower groups within classes - subclasses, that is, to classify objects in the surrounding world.

Classification is the distribution of objects into classes and subclasses based on common characteristics.

The classification results are usually displayed in the form of a hierarchical (tree) diagram. General view such a diagram is shown in Figure 9.1.

Externally, the classification scheme resembles an inverted tree, which is why it is called hierarchical (tree-like). The dotted lines in the diagram highlight the hierarchy levels. The topmost level (the root of the tree) specifies the main features that make it possible to distinguish objects of this class from others. Each subsequent lower level distinguishes groups of objects from a higher level based on the coincidence of one or more characteristics. At the bottom level there are specific instances of selected subclasses.

You may have already encountered similar diagrams when studying biology, history and other subjects.

Rice. 9.1. General view of the hierarchical diagram

This type of diagram is often depicted pedigree. It is commonly called a family tree.

Pedigree is a list of generations of one clan, establishing the origin and degree of relationship.

Basis of classification

You are already familiar with well-known examples of classification. For example, in biology this is the classification of plants and animals. Since ancient times, people, becoming familiar with the diversity of life forms on Earth, sought to distribute this diversity into groups. This is how a natural classification developed, based on observation and grouping according to certain characteristics. The ideas presented in C. Linnaeus’s book “Species of Plants,” published in 1753, still serve as the starting point for plant classification. Since that time, a double name for plants has been used: the first part of the name indicates the subclass (family), and the second - the specific characteristics of the specimen of this subclass. For example, the name Citrus limon indicates that we are talking about the citrus family, and specifically about the lemon tree.

Not only natural, but also artificial objects can be classified: in grammar, it is common to divide words into parts of speech, in physics - the classification of types of movement, in mathematics - the classification of numbers. They are based on the grouping of objects according to one or more intentionally selected characteristics. In different branches of science and technology, classes and subclasses may have their own specific names: types, families, departments, categories, groups, etc. However, their essence does not change.

Consider the “book” object. By this word we mean a wide variety of books: fiction and technical, different authors, different prices, thick and thin, in gift edition and paperback...

Now imagine that you need to put all this diversity “on the shelves” in the literal sense of the word, for example, organize your library.

Everyone will approach this issue differently. One person will arrange all the books in alphabetical order, according to the author's last name. Another will divide them into genres: detective, fantasy, adventure, romance or historical novels. The third will place them on the shelves, guided by the color of the binding and the size of the books (you've probably come across this approach). Despite the difference in classification methods, all these examples have something in common: the division of objects into “related” groups (classes), for which there are one or more common parameters.

In all the examples given, a common feature was chosen when grouping: in the first case it is the author, in the second case it is the genre, in the third case it is color and size. It was on the basis of these characteristics that the objects whose meaning coincided were then distinguished from the general mass.

There may be several such general signs. They are the basis of classification. Having chosen the basis, subclasses can be distinguished from the class with the general name “book”: “book of a certain author”, “book of a certain genre”, “book of a certain size”.

Classification is a creative process , so each person can have their own scheme. One of the possible options for identifying subclasses from the class of books is shown in Figure 9.2.

Rice. 9.2. Classification of books

On the first level The criterion “fiction” (yes, no) was chosen as the basis for dividing books into two groups. On this basis, there was a division into fiction and technical literature.

On the second level a sign of identifying subclasses could be called “form of presentation of information” (fiction, poetry, dictionaries, etc.).

Third level partitions can be characterized by the feature “style of presentation”.

Fourth level classifications are allocated only for novels, so as not to clutter the diagram. The sign of this level is “genre”.

At the lowest level There are specific copies of various books.

Property inheritance

The most important property of classes is inheritance. This word is familiar to you. Children inherit character traits from their parents and external signs. Each subclass that is distinguished from a class inherits the properties and actions inherent in that class. In the example shown in Figure 9.2, both the novel by D. S. Merezhkovsky, and all other published novels, and all fiction in general, inherit general properties and actions from the “book” class. They are all printed on paper, bound and designed to be read.

From the above classification it is clear that a hierarchical structure (tree) has formed. At its head is the ancestor class - “book”. At the very core, instances of subclasses are specific books by specific authors.

This tree structure with a common root is called an “inheritance hierarchy.” The characteristics and behavior associated with instances of a particular class become available to any class lower in the hierarchical tree.

When you say that “a book is a source of knowledge,” you mean both all books in general and a specific book, for example, “On Tasty and Healthy Food.” This is where inheritance comes into play.

Why is classification needed?

□ Classification allows you to select from the entire variety of objects groups with properties of interest to the researcher and focus on their study.

Let's assume that you are an inexperienced gardener, but want, using the achievements of science, to grow on your plot good harvests tomatoes. You don’t need to study a thick volume of “Plant Growing”; just read books about the nightshade family, and even better, about the peculiarities of growing tomatoes in your area.

□ Classification of objects is carried out with the aim of establishing hereditary connections between objects. The inheritance property allows you to study the characteristics of all objects of a class without being tied to a specific instance.

In geology, there is the “theory of uniform change,” which states that all natural factors act in the same way everywhere. There is no need to study how winds act on the Ural Mountains, since the mechanism of destruction of mountains under the influence of winds has long been studied, it is the same for all cases. The same applies to earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, mudflows, etc.

□ Classification allows you to systematize knowledge about objects of any nature and purpose.

This statement is illustrated by the fact that there is not a single school discipline that does not use the classification of objects of study as a means of summarizing the information received in the lessons. Open any textbook and see for yourself.

Examples of classification of various objects

By examining the same object for different purposes, you can see its different facets. For example, a doctor, when describing a specific person, will focus on the symptoms of a possible disease.

The psychologist will be interested in character traits and mental characteristics. Social services will pay attention to age, presence of relatives, living conditions. Therefore, the same objects can be classified in different ways by choosing one or another basis. You have already encountered examples of various classifications in the textbook. For example, when studying section 1, you classify information according to different criteria: by the method of perception and by the form of presentation.

Figure 9.3 shows another example of information classification - by content.

Rice. 9.3. Classification of information by content

In this classification, based on the “content” attribute, the following groups of information are distinguished at the first level:

♦ statistical - indicators of development of production and society;
♦ commercial - the most important information about production, trade and financial transactions;
♦ environmental - information about the condition environment and the impact of human activities on nature;
♦ political - information about activities state power, social movements and parties;
♦ other (demographic, medical, etc.).

All identified subclasses are characterized by the same properties (clarity, completeness, relevance, etc.) and actions (exchange, storage, processing) as the higher class “information”.

Let us give another example of a classification concerning the most significant systems (Figure 9.4).

Human participation in the creation of the system (natural and artificial) was chosen as the basis for classification at the first level.

At the second level, the basis for classification was the “sphere of human activity” feature. The following subclasses of systems are highlighted here:
♦ spiritual ones relating to a person’s spiritual life;
♦ technological related to human production activities;
♦ organizational ones providing services for all types of activities.

Rice. 9.4. Classification of the most significant systems

The diagram does not show further branching of the tree, as this would make the drawing cumbersome. But it is understood that further subclassification is possible. For example, considering the class of systems called “Art”, it was possible to distinguish the following subclasses according to the means of implementing the authors’ plans: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Literature, Theater, Music, Cinema, etc.

Along with established and generally recognized classifications, any classification of objects has the right to exist if a characteristic feature is taken as its basis and the rules for identifying classes and subclasses are followed. Figure 9.5 shows an example of the classification used in real life and means of transportation found in fairy tales.

Here, at level zero, there is a class of objects with the general name “vehicles”.

At the first level, two subclasses are distinguished based on “reality” (they exist in real life or in fairy tales and fantasies).

Rice. 9.5. Classification of vehicles

The second level distinguishes new subgroups from real and fairy-tale means of transportation on the basis of “travel medium.”

The third level divides real vehicles into subgroups based on the “type of vehicle.” The diagram does not indicate the allocation of subgroups from real ground vehicles, so as not to clutter it. But these groups could be as follows: rail, road. Further subdivision is possible. It is important to understand that lower levels inherit all the characteristic features characteristic of higher levels: for example, the Ka-26 object, which belongs to the subclass of helicopters, inherits the medium of movement (air) from the higher level, and is also a real means of transportation with all the accompanying features (there is in real life, transports people and goods).

Classification of computer documents

In the most general sense, a computer can be called an information processing tool. There are many different software environments for this. Developers are constantly improving programs, simplifying work with them and providing them with new features.

In order not to “drown” in a sea of software products, the user must have a very good idea of what information he has to work with. Each software environment is designed to create documents of a certain type.

In practical classes you have already become acquainted with many types of computer documents, which will be mentioned when classifying documents.

The diagram shown in Figure 9.6 shows the classification in which the “purpose of the document” attribute is selected as the basis. The main purpose of computer documents is to present information in a user-friendly form. Table 9.1 provides more specific characteristics of each class of documents.

Rice. 9.6. Classification of computer documents

Please note that the name of the environment usually matches the type of document and the form of information presented in it.

The above classification will help you choose a medium in accordance with the intended form of information presentation.

Currently, the documents used in various areas human activity are created on a computer. Let's look at examples of documents for various purposes and areas of application.

A literary work, a newspaper article, an order are examples of text documents.

Drawings, drawings, diagrams are graphic documents.

Table 9.1. Types of computer documents

An accountant at an enterprise presents data in tabular form for calculating employee salaries. The main feature of spreadsheets is that they allow you not only to present information in tabular form, but also to perform automatic calculations using formulas that link table cells.

One type of computer document is a database. It is a collection of ordered information about objects. In everyday life, you have come across databases more than once. This includes a card index with the titles of books in the library, a telephone directory, and a catalog of goods. Currently, instead of conventional “paper” databases, computer databases are being created everywhere, represented by documents of the appropriate type. The Help Desk Manager has a comprehensive computer database at his disposal to answer any of your questions. The database management system provides a quick search for the information you are interested in.

Text, graphics, tables, databases are examples of documents that present one type of information.

However, most often we deal with composite documents in which information is present in different forms. Such documents can contain text, formulas, drawings, tables, and much more. School textbooks, magazines, newspapers are well-known examples of composite documents.

To create composite documents, software environments are used that provide the ability to present information in different forms.

Development software has led to the emergence of new types of computer documents. In particular, these are presentations and hypertext documents.

The presentation is a collection of computer slides. A special program provides not only the preparation of information, but also its display according to a pre-created scenario.

Hypertext is a document that contains so-called hyperlinks to other parts of the document or other files that contain additional information.

Test questions and assignments

1. Why do you need to classify objects?

2. What is the basis of any classification?

3. Give an example of classifying objects according to general properties.

4. Give an example of classifying objects according to common actions.

5. Can the environment of existence become the basis for classification?

6. Classify objects with the general name “bicycle”.

7. Classify household dishes according to the following criteria: material, purpose, durability.

8. Offer several options for arranging (classifying) various objects on your desk.

9. Name the basis on which the following objects could fall into one group:

■ kangaroo, platypus, rabbit, armadillo;
■ rose, wheel, football boots, cactus;
■ milk, gasoline, acid, magma.

10. Name the dissimilar objects of the surrounding world that would be included in one group based on the “one substance” basis.

11. What classifications are used in your school environment?

12. List the most common groups of computer documents.

13. Give examples of classes of software products. What classification basis can be chosen for this?

14. What classification basis can be used to distinguish computer hardware groups?

15. What classes of computer memory do you know?