Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. The Eightfold Path of the Buddha. Samyak drishti, perfect vision

The ultimate goal of Buddhism is liberation from suffering and reincarnation. Buddha said: “Both in the past and in the present, I say only one thing: suffering and the destruction of suffering.” Despite the negative starting position of this formula, the goal set in it also has a positive aspect, because you can put an end to suffering only by realizing your human potential of kindness and happiness. One who achieves a state of complete self-realization is said to have achieved nirvana. Nirvana is the greatest good in Buddhism, the ultimate and highest good. It is both a concept and a state. As a concept, it reflects a certain vision of the realization of human potential, outlines the contours and forms of an ideal life; as a state, it is embodied over time in a person striving for it.

The desire for nirvana is understandable, but how to achieve it? The answer is partly contained in the previous chapters. We know that righteous living is highly valued in Buddhism; living virtuously is a necessary condition. However, some scientists reject this idea. They argue that accumulating merit by doing good deeds actually interferes with the attainment of nirvana. Good deeds, in their opinion, create karma, and karma leads to a series of rebirths. Then, they reason, it follows that to achieve nirvana it is necessary to transcend karma and all other ethical considerations. In connection with this understanding of the issue, two problems arise. First, why, if virtuous action is a hindrance to the path to nirvana, do sacred texts constantly encourage the performance of good deeds? Secondly, why do those who have achieved enlightenment, such as the Buddha, continue to live highly moral lives?

The solution to these problems is possible if a highly moral life is only part of the perfection achieved by a person, necessary for immersion in nirvana. Then, if virtue (strength, Sanskrit - shila) is one of the main elements of this ideal, then it cannot be self-sufficient and needs some kind of addition. This other necessary element is wisdom, the ability to perceive (panya, Sanskrit - prajya). “Wisdom” in Buddhism means a deep philosophical understanding of the human condition. It requires insight into the nature of reality, achieved through long and deep reflection. This is a type of gnosis, or direct insight into truth, that deepens over time and ultimately culminates in the enlightenment experienced by the Buddha.

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha).

But, monks, what is the Noble Truth of suffering? Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering. Pain, grief, sorrow, sadness, despair is suffering. Union with the unlovable is suffering, separation from the dear is suffering. The unattainability of what is desired is suffering. Thus, the five states (skandhas) of personality are suffering.

So, nirvana is the unity of virtue and wisdom. The relationship between them in the language of philosophy can be expressed as follows: both virtue and wisdom are “necessary” conditions for nirvana, the presence of only one of them is “insufficient.” Only together do they make it possible to achieve nirvana. In one of the early texts they are compared to two hands washing and cleansing each other; a person lacking one of them is imperfect (D.i.124).

If wisdom is indeed an absolutely necessary accompaniment of virtue, what must a person know in order to achieve enlightenment? To know the truth perceived by the Buddha on the night of enlightenment and subsequently set forth in the first sermon, which he delivered in the deer park near Benares. This sermon talks about four points known as the Four Noble Truths. They claim that: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering is generated by desire or thirst for pleasure, 3) suffering can be stopped, 4) there is a path leading to deliverance from suffering. Sometimes a comparison with medicine is made to illustrate the relationship between the two, with the Buddha being compared to a healer who found a cure for the ailment of life. Firstly, he diagnoses the disease, secondly, he explains its cause, thirdly, he determines the means against it, and fourthly, he begins treatment.

American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck begins his best-selling book The Road Not Taken with the words: “Life is hard.” Speaking of the First Noble Truth, he adds: “This is a great truth, one of the greatest truths.” Known in Buddhism as the "Truth of Suffering", it became the cornerstone of the Buddha's teachings. According to this truth, suffering (dukkha, Sanskrit - duhkha) is an integral part of life, and defines the human condition as a state of “dissatisfaction”. It includes many types of suffering, ranging from physical ones such as birth, aging, illness and death. Most often they are associated with physical pain, and there is a much more serious problem - the inevitability of repeating this cycle in every year. next life both for the person himself and for his loved ones. People are powerless in the face of these realities and, despite the latest discoveries in medicine, are still susceptible to illness and accidents due to their bodily nature. In addition to physical pain, the Truth of suffering points to its emotional and psychological forms: “grief, sorrow, sadness and despair.” . They can sometimes present more painful problems than physical suffering: few people live without grief and sorrow, while there are many severe psychological conditions, such as chronic depression, from which it is impossible to completely get rid of.

Beyond these obvious examples, The Truth of Suffering mentions a more subtle type of suffering that can be defined as “existential.” This follows from the statement: “The unattainability of what we want is suffering,” that is, failure, disappointment, collapse of illusions, experienced when hopes are not realized and reality does not correspond to our desires. The Buddha was not a pessimist and, of course, knew from his own experience when he was a young prince that there can be pleasant moments in life. The problem, however, is that good times do not last forever, sooner or later they go away or a person becomes bored with what seemed new and promising. In this sense, the word dukkha has a more abstract and deeper meaning: it indicates that even a life devoid of hardships may not bring satisfaction and self-realization. In this and many other contexts, the word "dissatisfaction" more accurately expresses the meaning of "duhkha" than "suffering."

The Truth of Suffering makes it possible to identify the root cause why human life does not bring complete satisfaction. The statement that "the five skandhas of the personality are suffering" refers to the teaching expounded by the Buddha in the second sermon (Vin.i.13). Let us list them: body (rupa), sensation (vedana), images of perception (samjna), desires and attractions (sanskara), consciousness (vijnana). There is no need to consider each in detail, since it is important to us not so much what is included in this list as what is not included. In particular, the doctrine makes no mention of the soul or "I", understood as an eternal and unchanging spiritual entity. This position of the Buddha departs from orthodox Indian religious tradition Brahmanism, which argued that every person has an eternal soul (Atman), which is either part of the metaphysical absolute - Brahman (impersonal deity), or is identical to it.

The Buddha said that he found no evidence of the existence of either the human soul (Atman) or its cosmic counterpart (Brahman). On the contrary, his approach - practical and empirical - is closer to psychology than to theology. His explanation of human nature, formed from five states, is in many ways similar to the explanation of the design of a car, consisting of wheels, gearbox, engine, steering, body. Of course, unlike scientists, he believed that a person’s moral essence (which can be called “spiritual DNA”) survives death and is reincarnated. By arguing that the five states of personality are suffering, the Buddha pointed out that human nature cannot become the basis of permanent happiness. Since a human being is composed of five constantly changing “attributes,” suffering will inevitably arise sooner or later, just as a car will eventually wear out and break down. Suffering is thus woven into the very fabric of our being.

The content of the Truth of Suffering is partly explained by the fact that the Buddha saw the first three signs - the old man, the leper and the dead - and realized that life is full of suffering and misfortune. Many, turning to Buddhism, find that its assessment of the human condition is pessimistic, but Buddhists believe that their religion is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic, that the Truth of suffering only objectively states facts. If she seems pessimistic, it is due to the long-standing human tendency to avoid unpleasant truths and “look for the bright side of everything.” This is why the Buddha noted that the Truth of suffering is extremely difficult to understand. This is similar to a person’s awareness of the fact that he is seriously ill, which no one wants to admit, and that it is impossible to recover.

If life is suffering, then how does it arise? The second noble truth, the Truth of Origination (samudaya), explains that suffering arises from craving or “thirst for life” (tanha). Passion ignites suffering like fire ignites firewood. In his sermon (C.iv.19), the Buddha said that all human experience is “blazing” with desires. Fire is an apt metaphor for desire because it consumes what feeds it without being satisfied. It spreads quickly, moves to new objects and causes pain, like unfulfilled desires.

2. The truth of emergence (samudaya).

This, monks, is the Truth of the origin of suffering. It is the thirst for life, attachment to illusory earthly values ​​(tanha), which leads to rebirth, associated with violent delight in form. 1) sensual pleasures, 2) the thirst for “prosperity”, existence, 3) the thirst for “destruction”, non-existence.

It is the desire to live, to enjoy life that causes rebirth. If we continue to compare the five “attributes” of a person with a car, then desire is the fuel that sets it in motion. Although rebirth is generally believed to occur from life to life, it also occurs from moment to moment: a person is said to be reborn in seconds if these five elements change and interact, driven by the desire for pleasant experiences. The continuity of human existence from one life to another is simply the result of the accumulated power of desire.

The truth of emergence states that craving manifests itself in three basic forms, the first of which is craving for sensual pleasures. It takes the form of a desire for pleasure through objects of perception, for example, pleasant tastes, sensations, smells, sounds. The second is the thirst for “prosperity.” It concerns the deep, instinctive desire for existence that pushes us towards new lives and new experiences. The third type of manifestation of passionate desire is the desire not for possession, but for “destruction.” This is the other side of the thirst for life, embodied in the instinct of denial, the rejection of what is unpleasant and undesirable. The thirst for destruction can also lead to self-sacrifice and self-denial.

Low self-esteem and thoughts like “I can’t do anything” or “I’m a failure” are manifestations of such a self-directed attitude. In extreme forms, it can lead to physical self-destruction, such as suicide. Physical self-torture, which the Buddha eventually abandoned, can also be seen as a manifestation of self-denial.

So does this mean that any desire is evil? We must approach such conclusions very carefully. Although the word tanha is often translated as "desire", it has a narrower meaning - desires, in some sense perverted by excess or evil purpose. It is usually aimed at sensual stimulation and pleasure. However, not all desires are like this, and Buddhist sources often speak of positive desires (chanda). Striving for a positive goal for yourself and for others (for example, achieving nirvana), wishing happiness for others, wanting the world that remains after you to become better - these are examples of positive and beneficial desires that are not defined by the concept of “tanha”.

If bad desires restrain and fetter a person, then good ones give him strength and freedom. To see the difference, take smoking as an example. The desire of a heavy smoker to light another cigarette is tanha, since it is aimed at nothing more than momentary pleasure, obsessive, limited, cyclical, and will not lead to anything other than another cigarette (and as a side effect - to poor health). On the other hand, the desire of a heavy smoker to quit smoking will be beneficial because it will break the vicious circle of obsessive behavior. bad habit, will promote health and well-being.

In the Truth of Origin, tanha represents the above-mentioned “three roots of evil” - passion, hatred and delusion. In Buddhist art they are depicted as a rooster, a pig and a snake rushing in a circle in the center of the “wheel of life”, which we talked about in the third chapter, while they form a circle - the tail of one is held in the mouth of the other. Since the thirst for life gives rise to only the next desire, rebirths form a closed cycle, people are born again and again. How this happens is explained in detail by the theory of causation, which is called pathikka-samuppada (Sanskrit - pratitya-samutpada - dependent origination). This theory explains how desire and ignorance lead to a chain of rebirths consisting of 12 stages. But for us now it is more important not to consider these stages in detail, but to understand the main principle underlying them, which applies not only to human psychology, but also to reality in general.

3. The truth of cessation (nirodha).

This, O monks, is the Truth of the cessation of suffering. This is the renunciation of the thirst for life (tanha), leaving it, renouncing it, liberation from it, getting rid of attachment to it.

In the most general outline The essence of this theory is that every effect has a cause, in other words, everything arises in interdependence. According to this, all phenomena are part of a cause-and-effect series, nothing exists independently, in itself and by itself. Therefore, the Universe is not a collection of static objects, but a web of causes and effects in constant motion. Moreover, just as a person’s personality can be completely decomposed into five “attributes,” all phenomena can be reduced to their constituent components without finding any “essence” in them. Everything that arises has three signs of existence, namely: lack of understanding of the frailty of earthly life (dukkha), variability (anigga) and lack of self-existence (anatta). “Actions and things” do not give satisfaction because they are impermanent (and therefore unstable and unreliable), because they do not have their own nature, independent of universal cause-and-effect processes.

It is obvious that the Buddhist Universe is characterized primarily by cyclical changes: on the psychological level - the endless process of desire and its satisfaction; on the personal level - a chain of deaths and rebirths; in cosmic terms - the creation and destruction of Galaxies. All this is based on the principles of the pathikka-samuppada theory, the provisions of which were later thoroughly developed by Buddhism.

The Third Noble Truth is the Truth of cessation (nirodha). It says that when you get rid of the thirst for life, suffering stops and nirvana comes. As we know from the story of the Buddha’s life, nirvana has two forms: the first occurs during life (“nirvana with remainder”), and the second after death (“nirvana without remainder”). Buddha achieved nirvana during his lifetime at the age of 35, sitting under a savory tree. When he was 80, he plunged into the final nirvana, from which there is no return through rebirth.

"Nirvana" literally means "extinguishing" or "blowing out", just as the flame of a candle goes out. But what exactly is “fading away”? Maybe this is the soul of a person, his “I”, his individuality? It cannot be the soul, since Buddhism denies its existence at all. It is not “I” or self-consciousness, although nirvana certainly involves a radical change in the state of consciousness, freed from attachment to “I” and “mine”. In fact, the flame of the triad - passion, hatred and delusion, which leads to reincarnation - is extinguished. Indeed, the simplest definition of “nirvana with a remainder” is “the end of passion, hatred and delusion” (C.38.1). This is a psychological and moral phenomenon, a transformed state of personality, which is characterized by peace, deep spiritual joy, compassion, refined and soulful perception. Negative mental states and emotions, such as doubt, anxiety, worry and fear, are absent in an enlightened mind. Some or all of these qualities are common to saints in many religions, and ordinary people may also possess some of them to some extent. However, the Enlightened Ones, like a Buddha or an arhat, are inherent in their entirety.

What happens to a person when he dies? There is no clear answer to this question in early sources. Difficulties in understanding this arise precisely in connection with the last nirvana, when the flame of the thirst for life goes out, reincarnations cease and a person who has achieved enlightenment is not born again. The Buddha said that asking where the Enlightened One is after death is like asking where a flame goes when it is blown out. The flame, of course, does not “go” anywhere; the combustion process simply stops. Getting rid of the thirst for life and ignorance is tantamount to cutting off the oxygen needed for combustion. However, the comparison with flame should not be taken to mean that “nirvana without remainder” is annihilation. The sources clearly indicate that such an understanding is erroneous, as is the conclusion that nirvana is the eternal existence of the soul.

Buddha was against it different interpretations nirvana, giving the main importance to the desire to achieve it. He compared those who asked about nirvana to a man wounded by a poisoned arrow, who, instead of taking the arrow out, persistently asks questions that are meaningless in the given situation about who released it, what his name is, what kind of family he is from, how far away he stood etc. (M.i.426). In full accordance with the Buddha's reluctance to develop this topic, early sources define nirvana primarily through negation, that is, as “lack of desire,” “suppression of thirst,” “quenching,” “extinction.” Fewer positive definitions can be found, including such as “auspiciousness”, “good”, “purity”, “peace”, “truth”, “far shore”. Some texts indicate that nirvana is transcendental, as "unborn, unarisen, uncreated and unformed" (Udana, 80), but it is not known how this should be interpreted. As a result, the nature of “nirvana without remainder” remains a mystery to everyone who has not experienced it. However, what we can be sure of is that it means the end of suffering and rebirth.

4. Truth of the path (magga).

This, O monks, is the Truth of the path (magga), which leads to the cessation of suffering. This is the noble "eightfold path", which consists of 1) right view, 2) right thinking, 3) right speech, 4) right conduct, 5) right livelihood, 6) right effort, 7) right memory, 8) correct concentration.

The Fourth Noble Truth - the Truth of the path (magga, Sanskrit - marga) - explains how the transition from samsara to nirvana should occur. In the hustle and bustle of everyday life, few people stop to think about the most fulfilling way of life. These questions worried the Greek philosophers, and the Buddha also contributed to their understanding. He believed that highest form life is a life leading to the perfection of virtue and knowledge, and the Eightfold Path defines the way of life by which this can be put into practice. It is also called the “middle path” because it passes between two extremes: a life of excess and strict asceticism. It includes eight steps, divided into three categories - morality, concentration (meditation) and wisdom. They define the parameters of the human good and indicate where the sphere of human flourishing lies. In the category of “morality” (sila), moral qualities are improved, and in the category of “wisdom” (panya), intellectual qualities are developed. The role of meditation will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

Although the “path” consists of eight parts, they should not be thought of as stages that a person goes through approaching nirvana, leaving them behind. On the contrary, the eight steps represent paths of continuous improvement in “morality,” “meditation,” and “wisdom.” "Right View" means first accepting the Buddhist teachings and then empirically confirming them; “right thinking” - commitment to the formation of the right attitudes; “Right speech” is speaking the truth, showing thoughtfulness and interest in conversation, and “Right behavior” is abstaining from bad deeds such as murder, theft or bad behavior (sensual pleasures). “The right way to live” involves avoiding actions that cause harm to others; “correct application of forces” - gaining control over your thoughts and developing positive attitudes; “correct memory” is the development of constant understanding, “correct concentration” is the achievement of a state of deepest peace of mind, which is what various techniques of concentration of consciousness and personality integration are aimed at.

1. Right View Wisdom

2. Right thinking (panya)

3. Correct speech Morality

4. Right Conduct (Sheela)

5. The right way to maintain life

6. Correct application of forces Meditation

7. Correct memory (samadhi)

8. Correct Concentration

The Eightfold Path and its three components

In this regard, the practice of the Eightfold Path is a kind of modeling process: these eight principles show how a Buddha will live, and by living like a Buddha, a person can gradually become one. The Eightfold Path is thus a path of self-transformation, an intellectual, emotional and moral restructuring, during which a person is reoriented from narrow, selfish goals to the development of opportunities for self-realization. Through the desire for knowledge (panya) and moral virtue (sila), ignorance and selfish desires are overcome, the causes of suffering are eliminated, and nirvana comes.

About 2.5 thousand years ago, one of the greatest spiritual experiences known to mankind began. The Indian prince Siddhartha achieved a special state, Enlightenment, and formed one of the world's oldest religions - Buddhism.

A little about Buddha

Legends of early years The life of Prince Siddhartha is well known. He grew up in luxury, without knowing deprivation and anxiety, until one day an accident forced him to face simple human suffering: illness, old age and death. At that moment, Siddhartha realized how illusory and impermanent what people call “happiness” is. He went on a long solitary journey to find a way to relieve people from suffering.

Information about the life of this person is based mainly on numerous legends, and there is very little accurate information. But for modern followers of Buddhism, the spiritual heritage of Gautama is much more important. The teaching he created explained the laws of earthly existence and affirmed the possibility of achieving Enlightenment. Its main points can be found in the Dharmachakra Launching Sutra, a source that details what are the main 4 truths of Buddhism as formed by Gautama.

One of the sutras says that throughout the history of mankind, about 1000 Buddhas (that is, those who have achieved Enlightenment) will appear on Earth. But Shakyamuni was not the first and had three predecessors. It is believed that a new Buddha will appear at the moment when the teaching formed by the previous one begins to decline. But they all must perform twelve special feats, as Gautama did in his time.

The emergence of the doctrine of the 4 noble truths

The 4 noble truths of Buddhism are revealed in detail in the Sutra of Launching the Wheel of Dharma, which has been translated into many languages ​​and is now well known. According to the surviving biographies of Shakyamuni, he gave his first sermons 7 weeks after Enlightenment to his ascetic companions. According to legend, they saw Gautama sitting under a tree surrounded by a bright glow. It was then that the provisions of the teaching were first voiced, which was traditionally recognized as the main one by both early and modern Buddhism - the 4 noble truths and the Eightfold Path.

The truths of Buddhism in brief

The 4 noble truths of Buddhism can be summarized in several theses. Human life (more precisely, a chain of successive incarnations, Samsara) is suffering. The reason for this is all kinds of desires. Suffering can be stopped forever, and in its place a special state - nirvana - can be achieved. To do this, there is a specific way, which is called Thus, the 4 truths of Buddhism can be briefly presented as a teaching about suffering, its origins and ways to overcome it.

First Noble Truth

The first statement is the truth about dukkha. From Sanskrit this term is usually translated as “suffering”, “restlessness”, “dissatisfaction”. But there is an opinion that this designation is not entirely correct, and the word “dukkha” actually means the entire set of desires, addictions, which always feel painful.

Revealing the 4 noble truths of Buddhism, Shakyamuni argued that all life passes in anxiety and dissatisfaction, and this is the usual state of a person. “4 great streams of suffering” pass through the fate of each person: at birth, during illness, in old age, at the time of death.

In his sermons, Buddha also highlighted the “3 great sufferings.” The reason for the first one is change. The second is suffering that aggravates others. The third is unifying. Speaking about the concept of “suffering,” it should be emphasized that from the point of view of Buddhism, it includes any human experiences and emotions, even those that, according to generally accepted opinion, most closely correspond to the idea of ​​happiness.

Second Noble Truth

The 4 truths of Buddhism in their second position tell about the emergence of dukkha. Buddha called the cause of suffering “insatiable desire,” in other words, desire. They are the ones who force a person to remain in the cycle of samsara. And as you know, getting out of the chain of rebirths is the main goal of Buddhism.

As a rule, after the fulfillment of another desire, a person is visited for a short time by a feeling of peace. But soon a new need appears, which becomes a cause of constant concern, and so on ad infinitum. Thus, suffering has only one source - constantly arising desires.

The desire to satisfy desires and needs is closely related to such an important concept in Indian philosophy as karma. It is the totality of a person’s thoughts and real actions. Karma is something like the result of aspirations, but it is also the cause of new, future actions. It is on this mechanism that the cycle of samsara is based.

The 4 truths of Buddhism also help explain the cause of bad karma. For this purpose, 5 emotions were identified: affection, anger, jealousy, pride and ignorance. Attachment and hatred caused by misunderstanding of the true nature of phenomena (that is, a distorted perception of reality) is the main reason for the repetition of suffering over many rebirths.

Third Noble Truth

Known as the “truth of the cessation of dukkha” and brings one closer to the understanding of Enlightenment. In Buddhism, it is believed that a state beyond suffering, completely freed from desires and attachments, can be fully achieved. This can be accomplished through conscious intention, using the techniques described in detail in the last part of the teaching.

The facts of the peculiar interpretation of the third noble truth are known from the biography of the Buddha. The monks who joined his wanderings often understood this position as a complete renunciation of all, even urgent desires. They practiced suppressing all their physical needs and engaged in self-torture. However, Shakyamuni himself, at a certain stage of his life, abandoned such an “extreme” embodiment of the third truth. Revealing in detail the 4 truths of Buddhism, he argued that the main goal is to adhere to the “middle path”, but not to suppress absolutely all desires.

Fourth Noble Truth

Knowing what the 4 truths of Buddhism are would be incomplete without understanding the Middle Way. The last, fourth point is devoted to practice leading to the cessation of dukkha. It is this that reveals the essence of the doctrine of the Eightfold (or Middle) Path, which in Buddhism is understood as the only way to get rid of suffering. And sadness, anger and despair will inevitably be generated by all states of mind, except one - Enlightenment.

Following the Middle Way is understood as the ideal balance between the physical and spiritual components of human existence. Enjoyment, excessive predilection and attachment to something are extreme, as well as asceticism, the opposite of it.

In fact, the remedies proposed by the Buddha are absolutely universal. The main one is meditation. Other methods are aimed at using each and every ability of the human body and mind. They are available to all people, regardless of their physical and intellectual capabilities. Much of the Buddha's practice and preaching was devoted to the development of these methods.

Enlightenment

Enlightenment is the highest goal of spiritual development that Buddhism recognizes. The 4 Noble Truths and 8 Stages of the Middle Way are a kind of theoretical and practical basis for achieving this state. It is believed that it has nothing to do with all available to an ordinary person sensations. Buddhist texts speak about Enlightenment quite generally, in the language of metaphors and with the help of But it is not possible to express it at least in any concrete way through familiar concepts.

IN Buddhist tradition The term for enlightenment is “bodhi,” which literally means “awakening.” It is believed that the potential to go beyond the usual perception of reality lies within every person. Once you have achieved Enlightenment, it is impossible to lose it.

Denial and criticism of teaching

The 4 basic truths of Buddhism are teachings common to all its schools. At the same time, a number of Mahayana movements (Sanskrit: “Great Vehicle” - one of the two largest movements along with Hinayana) adhere to the “Heart Sutra”. As you know, she denies the 4 noble truths of Buddhism. Briefly, this can be expressed as follows: suffering does not exist, which means there are no reasons for it, no end and no way for it.

The Heart Sutra is revered as one of the main sources in Mahayana Buddhism. It contains a description of the teachings of Avalokiteshvara, a bothisattva (that is, one who decided to become enlightened for the benefit of all living things). The Heart Sutra is generally devoted to the idea of ​​getting rid of illusions.

According to Avalokiteshvara, the basic dogmas, which include the 4 noble truths, only make an attempt to explain reality. And the concept of suffering and overcoming it is only one of them. The Heart Sutra encourages understanding and accepting things as they really are. A true bothisattva cannot perceive reality in a distorted way, therefore, he does not consider the idea of ​​suffering to be true.

According to some modern experts on the 4 truths of Buddhism, this is a late “addition” to the ancient version of the biography of Siddhartha Gautama. In their assumptions, they rely mainly on the results of a study of many ancient texts. There is a version that not only the doctrine of the noble truths, but also several other concepts traditionally associated with Shakyamuni, are not directly related to his life and were formed by his followers only centuries later.

Is there at least one living creature in the world that does not experience suffering?

Suffering appears in everything. One might argue: no, there are things that bring me more joy than suffering. Are you afraid of losing these things? While we live, we are forced to suffer.

It is a mistake to think that death is the last of suffering; we will definitely be reborn. This means that suffering will follow us even to Heaven. One of the sufferings of the gods of the World of Desires is to foresee their future death.

The suffering in hell is the highest, and death here may seem only like deliverance from torment. A person, realizing life in suffering, one day thinks: “Why do I suffer? From some point on, suffering began to fill my life, maybe I began to pay attention to it. The joys that I strived for are dissolving like mirages.

Life is full of suffering - why deceive yourself? You can try not to notice this, look for something new, but I don’t want to, I want to understand myself. If life is meaningless, then death is even more meaningless.

Therefore, undoubtedly, there must be meaning in life itself.

But I wasn’t born to suffer. It is necessary to find a way out of this labyrinth of suffering. Where is the way out?" So a person begins to look for a way to get rid of suffering, and, most often, this ends with turning to a “national” religion. People do not want suffering, but who knows how to end it forever?

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Two and a half thousand years ago, the Sage from the Shakya clan - Arhat, the Most Revered, Tathagata, Teacher of Gods and People, Knower of all Worlds, Unsurpassed - Shakyamuni Buddha declared that there is a way to get rid of all suffering.

The Buddha explained to his disciples, who were at first five,

Four Noble Truths:

1. the truth about suffering;

2. the truth about the cause (origin) of suffering;

3. the truth about the end of suffering;

4. the truth about the path leading to the end of suffering.

The Four Noble Truths were explained by the Buddha in three cycles, or revolutions of the Wheel of the Law.

The first cycle is the disclosure of the meaning of the Noble Truths - laws valid for all worlds of the Universe, absolute for all worlds.

The second cycle is an explanation of the Noble Truths as a path: suffering must be realized, then the causes of this suffering must be eliminated; for the complete cessation of suffering, it is necessary to realize Liberation-Separation; for this, the Buddha discovered the Noble Eightfold Path, in the practice of which you need to improve.

The third cycle is the revelation of the Noble Truths as fruit: the Buddha realized all suffering, he eliminated the causes of his suffering; he achieved Liberation by renouncing the craving for desire, the craving for existence and the craving for non-existence; he has achieved perfection in the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path.

To understand, practice and master the Four Noble Truths means to understand the Buddha's Teachings, practice them and realize Buddha nature.

From the Dhammacakkapawattana Sutta (Sutra on the Beginning of the Revolving Wheel of the Law):

"(1) Monks, here is the Noble Truth about Suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, [illness is suffering], death is suffering. And grief, and sorrow, and physical pain, and mental pain, and despair are suffering. With to be unloved is suffering, separation from a loved one is suffering; not getting what you want is suffering.

In short, the Five Accumulations of Captivity (Sanskrit skandha, Pali khandha) are suffering (Pali dukkha).

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of stress: Birth is stressful, aging is stressful, (in other translation: sickness is suffering), death is stressful; sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair are stressful; association with the unbeloved is stressful (in other translation: association with the loathed is suffering), separation from the loved is stressful, not getting what is wanted is stressful. In short, the five clinging-aggregates are stressful.

(2) And here, monks, is the Noble Truth about the Cause of Suffering.

This is Thirst (pali tanha; i.e., the desire for pleasant sensations and the reluctance of unpleasant ones), which leads to subsequent Formation (pali bhava; i.e., the acquisition of existence), it is accompanied by strong emotional excitement and the experience of pleasure, it seeks pleasure here, then there.

In other words, this is a thirst for sensual pleasures, a thirst for becoming (i.e., for being) and a thirst for non-becoming (for non-being).

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the origination of stress: the craving that makes for further becoming – accompanied by passion & delight, enjoying now here & now there – i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming.

(3) And here, monks, is the Noble Truth about the Cessation of Suffering. This is complete calming [of worries] and cessation, refusal, separation, this is Liberation with distance from that very thirst (Liberation-Distance).

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of stress: the remainderless fading & cessation, renunciation, release, release, & letting go of that very craving.

(4) And here, monks, is the Noble Truth about the Path of Practice Leading to the Cessation of Suffering.

This is the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right View (Pali ditthi),

2. Right Attitude (Pali sankappa),

3. Correct Speech(pali vaca),

4. Right Action (pali kammanta),

5. Right Life (pali ajiva),

6. Right Effort (vayama),

7. Correct Concentration of Attention (pali sati),

8. Right Samadhi (Pali samadhi)."

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: precisely this Noble Eightfold Path – right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration".

The text is duplicated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu's translation from Pali into English.

1. FIRST NOBLE TRUTH: DUKKHA

The First Noble Truth (Dukkha aryasaccha) is usually translated by almost all scholars as the "Noble Truth of Suffering", and is interpreted to mean that life, according to Buddhism, is nothing but suffering and pain. Both the translation and the interpretation are highly unsatisfactory and misleading. It is because of this limited, loose and convenient translation and its superficial interpretation that many have been misled into thinking that Buddhism is pessimistic.

First of all, Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic. If there is one at all, then he is realistic because he takes a realistic view of life and the world. He looks at everything objectively (yathabhutam). It doesn't deceptively lull you into living in a fool's paradise, but it doesn't frighten or torment you with all sorts of imaginary fears and sins. He tells you exactly and objectively what you are and what the world around you is, and shows you the path to perfect freedom, peace, tranquility and happiness.

One doctor can fatally exaggerate the disease and completely destroy hope. Another may ignorantly declare that there is no disease and no treatment is needed, thereby deceiving the patient with false consolation. You can call the first a pessimist and the second an optimist. Both are equally dangerous. But the third doctor correctly identifies the signs of the disease, understands its cause and nature, clearly sees that it can be cured, and boldly prescribes a course of treatment, thereby saving his patient. Buddha is like the last doctor. He is the wise and learned healer of the diseases of the world (Bhisakka or Bhaishajya Guru).

Indeed, the Pali word dukkha (or Sanskrit dukkha) in common usage means "suffering", "pain", "sorrow", "misfortune", as opposed to the word sukha, meaning "happiness", "comfort", "peace". But the term dukkha as the First Noble Truth, representing the Buddha's vision of life and the world, has a deeper philosophical meaning and covers broader meanings. It is accepted that the term dukkha in the First Noble Truth contains, quite obviously, the ordinary meaning of "suffering", but also includes such deeper ideas as "imperfection", "impermanence", "emptiness", "immateriality". Therefore, it is difficult to find one word to cover the entire concept of dukkha as the First Noble Truth, and therefore it is better to leave it untranslated rather than give an improper and incorrect idea of ​​it or, for the sake of convenience, translate it as “suffering” or “pain.”

Buddha does not deny happiness in life by saying that there is suffering in it. On the contrary, he admits different types happiness, both material and spiritual, for the laity as well as for the monks. In the Anguttara Nikaya, one of the five primary collections in Pali containing the Buddha's discourses, there is a list of happinesses (sukhani), such as happiness family life and the happiness of living as a hermit, the happiness of sensual pleasures and the happiness of renunciation, the happiness of attachment and the happiness of non-attachment, bodily happiness and spiritual happiness, etc. But they are all included in dukkha. Even the purest spiritual states of dhyana (concentration or detachment, trance), achieved by the practice of higher contemplation, free even from the shadow of suffering in the ordinary sense of the word, states that can be described as happiness without any impurities, as well as the state of dhyana, which is free as from pleasant (sukha) and unpleasant (dukkha) sensations, and which is only pure equanimity and awareness - even these very high spiritual states are included in dukkha. In one of the suttas from the Majjhima Nikaya (also one of the five primary collections), after praising the spiritual happiness of these dhyanas, the Buddha says that they are “impermanent, dukkha and subject to change” (anicca dukkha viparinamadhamma). Note that the word dukkha is used directly. This is dukkha not because there is "suffering" in the usual sense of the word, but because "whatever is impermanent is dukkha" (yad aniccam tam dukkha).

Buddha was realistic and objective. He says, in relation to life and the enjoyment of sense pleasures, that three things should be clearly understood: 1) attraction or pleasure (assada), 2) bad consequences or danger or dissatisfaction (adinava), and 3) freedom or deliverance (nissarana). When you see someone who is nice, charming and handsome man, you like him (or she), you are attracted to him, you enjoy seeing this person again and again, you derive pleasure and satisfaction from this person. This is pleasure (assada). This is confirmed by experience. But this pleasure is not constant, just as that person and all his (or her) attractiveness are not constant. When circumstances change, when you cannot see that person, you become sad, you may become reckless and unstable, you may even behave foolishly. This is the bad, unsatisfactory and dangerous side of the picture (adinava). This is also confirmed by experience. If you have no attachment to a person, if you are completely independent, then this is freedom, deliverance (nissarana). These three things are true of all the pleasures of life.

What is clear from this is that it is not a matter of pessimism or optimism, but that we must take into account the pleasures of life, as well as its pains and sorrows, and freedom from them, in order to understand life fully and objectively. Only then is true liberation possible.

Concerning this issue, the Buddha says: “O bhikkhus, if any ascetics or brahmanas do not correctly understand in this way, the enjoyment of sense pleasures as pleasure, dissatisfaction with them as dissatisfaction, deliverance from them as deliverance, then it is impossible that they themselves will probably fully understand the desire for sense pleasures. pleasures, or that they can instruct others in this, or that the one who follows their instructions will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures. But, O bhikkhus, if any hermits or brahmanas correctly understand in this way the enjoyment of sensual pleasures as pleasure, dissatisfaction with them as dissatisfaction, deliverance from. them as deliverance, then it is possible that they themselves will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures, and that they will be able to instruct others in this, and that those who follow their instructions will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures.”

The concept of dukkha can be viewed from three angles: (1) dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha), (2) dukkha as generated by change (viparinama-dukkha), and (3) dukkha as conditioned states (samkhara-dukkha).

All types of suffering in life, such as birth, old age, illness, death, association with unpleasant people and conditions, separation from loved ones and pleasant conditions, not getting what you want, grief, sadness, misfortune - all such types of physical and spiritual suffering, which are considered everywhere suffering or pain are included in dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha).

Happy feelings, pleasant living conditions are not constant, not eternal. Sooner or later this will change. When it changes, it produces pain, suffering, unhappiness. These vicissitudes are included in dukkha as suffering generated by change (viparinama-dukkha).

The above two types of suffering (dukkha) are easy to understand. Nobody will dispute them. This side of the First Noble Truth is more widely known because it is easy to understand. These are ordinary experiences of everyday life.

But the third kind of dukkha as conditioned states (samkhara-dukkha) is the most important philosophical side of the First Noble Truth and requires some analytical clarification of what we consider as a “being,” as a “person,” as “I.”

What we call "being", "personality" or "I", according to Buddhist philosophy, is only a combination of constantly changing bodily and spiritual forces or energies, which can be divided into five aggregates or groups (panchakkhandha). The Buddha says: "In short, these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha." 3. Throughout he defines dukkha as the five aggregates: "O bhikkhus, what is dukkha? It should be said that these are the five aggregates of attachment." It should be clearly understood here that dukkha and the five aggregates are not two different things; the five aggregates are themselves dukkha. We will better understand this position when we have some idea of ​​the five aggregates that make up the so-called “being.” So what are these five aggregates?

Five Aggregates

The first is the totality of Substance (Rupakkhandha). Included in this term "Totality of Substance" are the ordinary Four Great Elements (chattari mahabhutani), namely, hardness, fluidity, heat and motion, as well as the Derivatives (upada-rupa) of the Four Great Elements. The term "Derivatives of the Four Great Elements" includes our five material sense organs, i.e., the faculties of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and the corresponding objects of the external world, i.e. visible image, sound, smell, taste and tangible things, as well as some thoughts, concepts and ideas related to the realm of objects of the mind (dharmayatana). Thus the whole kingdom of matter, both internal and external, is included in the Totality of Matter.

The second is the Totality of Sensations (Vedanakkhandha). This includes all our sensations, pleasant, unpleasant or neutral, experienced through the contact of the bodily organs and mind with the external world. They are of six types: the sensations experienced by the eye with a visible image, the ear with sound, the nose with smell, the tongue with taste, the body with tangible objects, and the mind (which in Buddhist philosophy is the sixth sense) with mental objects, thoughts or ideas. . All our bodily and mental sensations are included in this totality.

The word "Mind" (manas) used in Buddhist philosophy may be helpful here. It should be clearly understood that mind is not spirit as opposed to matter. It should always be remembered that Buddhism does not recognize the opposition of spirit to matter, as is accepted by most other religious and philosophical systems. The mind is only a faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or ear. It can be controlled and developed like any other faculty, and the Buddha speaks quite often about the value of managing and disciplining these six faculties. The difference between the eye and the mind, as faculties, is that the former senses the world of colors and visible images, while the latter senses the world of ideas, thoughts and mental objects. We experience different areas of the world through different senses. We can't hear colors, but we can see them. Thus, with the help of our five bodily senses - eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body - we experience only the world of visible images, sounds, smells, tastes and tangible objects. But they represent only part of the world, not the whole world. But what about thoughts and ideas? They are also part of the world. But they cannot be felt, cannot be perceived through the faculties of the eye, ear, tongue, nose or body. But they can still be perceived through another faculty, which is the mind. Thoughts and ideas are not independent of the world experienced through these five bodily sense faculties. In reality, they depend on and are conditioned by bodily experiences. Thus, a person born blind cannot have ideas about color, except through comparison with sounds or some other things experienced by him through other faculties. Thoughts and ideas are thus produced and conditioned by bodily experiences and perceived by the mind. Therefore, the mind (manas) is considered to be a sensory faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or ear.

The third is the totality of Perceptions (Sannyakkhandha). Like sensations, perceptions are also of six kinds, in relation to the six internal faculties and the six corresponding external objects. Like sensations, they are generated through the contact of our six faculties with the outside world. It is perceptions that recognize objects, whether bodily or mental.

The fourth is the Set of Mental Formations 4 (Samkharakkhandha). This includes all intentional activity, both good and bad. This includes what is commonly known as karma (kamma). Here we should remember the Buddha's definition of karma: “O bhikkhu, this intention (cetana) I call karma. Having created an intention, one acts with body, speech and mind.” 5. Intention is “a mental creation, an activity of the mind. Its action is to direct the mind in good, bad and neutral matters." Just like sensations and perceptions, intention is of six types, associated with six internal faculties and six corresponding objects (both bodily and mental) of the external world. Sensations and perceptions are not intentional actions - such as attention (manasikara), will (chanda), determination (adhimokha), trust (saddha), concentration (samadhi), wisdom (panna), effort (viriya), passion (raga), aversion or hatred (patigha), ignorance (avijja), conceit (mana), self-image (sakkaya-ditthi), etc. - can produce karmic effects. There are 52 such activities of the mind that constitute the Totality of Mental Formations.

The fifth is the Aggregate of Consciousness (Vinnanakkhandha) 6. Consciousness is an effect or response, the basis of which is one of the six faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind), and the object is one of the six corresponding external phenomena (visible image , sound, smell, taste, tangible things and objects of the mind, i.e. thought or idea). For example, visual consciousness (cakkhu-vinnana) has the eye as its basis and the visible image as its object. Mental consciousness (manovinnana) has mind (manas) as its basis and a mental object, i.e. a thought or idea (dhamma) as its object. Consciousness is thus related to other faculties. So, like sensation, perception and intention, consciousness is also of six types, corresponding to six internal faculties and six corresponding external objects.

It should be clearly understood that consciousness does not recognize the object. This is just a kind of awareness - awareness of the presence of an object. When the eye comes into contact with a color, such as blue, visual consciousness arises, which is simply the awareness of the presence of color; but it does not recognize that it is blue. At this stage there is no recognition. This perception (the third Aggregate discussed above) recognizes that the color is blue. The term "visual consciousness" is a philosophical expression denoting the same idea as the ordinary word "vision". Seeing does not mean recognizing. The same is true for other types of consciousness.

It must be repeated here that according to Buddhist philosophy, there is no permanent and unchanging spirit, which can be considered as the “Self”, “Soul” or “I”, as opposed to matter. Particular emphasis must be placed at this point, since the incorrect opinion that consciousness is some kind of Self or Soul that lasts through life as a continuous entity has persisted from ancient times to the present day.

One of the Buddha's own disciples, named Sati, believed that the Master taught: "This is the same consciousness that migrates and wanders everywhere." Buddha asked him what he meant by "consciousness." Sati's answer was classic: "It is what expresses itself, what feels, what experiences the consequences of good and bad deeds here and there."

“Who are you, fool,” objected the Mentor, “did you hear me expound the teaching in this way? Didn’t I explain consciousness in different ways as arising from conditions.” The Buddha then went on to explain consciousness in detail: “Consciousness is named according to the conditions through which it arises: from the eye and visible images consciousness arises, and it is called visual consciousness; from the ear and sounds, consciousness arises, and it is called auditory consciousness; from the nose and consciousness arises from smells, and it is called olfactory consciousness; through language and tastes consciousness arises, and it is called taste consciousness; through the body and tangible objects, consciousness arises, and it is called tactile consciousness; consciousness arises, and it is called mental consciousness."

The Buddha then explained this further with an example: "Fire is named according to the substance by which it burns. Fire can burn by wood and it is called wood fire, it can burn by straw and then it is called straw fire." So consciousness is named according to the conditions through which it arises."

Pausing at this point, Buddhaghosa, the great commentator, explains: "...the fire that burns due to the tree burns only when there is support, but dies in the very place when it (the support) is no longer there, because the conditions have changed, but ( fire) does not transfer to chips, etc., and does not become “fire-from-chips” and so on; in the same way, consciousness arising due to the eye and visible images arises at the gate of the sense organ (i.e. in eye), only under the condition of the eye, visible images, light and attention, but it stops there and then when they (conditions) no longer exist, since the conditions have changed, but (consciousness) does not move to the ear, etc., and does not become auditory consciousness and so on..."

The Buddha declared in unequivocal terms that consciousness is dependent on matter, sensation, perception and mental formations, and that it cannot exist independently of them. He says:

"Consciousness can exist with matter as a means (rupupayam), matter as an object (rupurammanam), matter as support (rupapatittham), and in seeking pleasure it can grow, increase and develop; or consciousness can exist with sensation as a means... . or perception as a means... or mental formations... as a means, mental formations as an object, mental formations as a support, and in seeking pleasure it can grow, increase and develop.

If there were a person who said: “I will show the coming, going, arising, disappearing, growth, increase or development of consciousness apart from matter, sensation, perception and mental formations, then he would be talking about something that does not exist.” .

Very briefly, these are the five Aggregates. What we call "being" or "person" is only a convenient name or label given to the combination of these five aggregates. They are all impermanent, they are all constantly changing. "Everything that is impermanent is dukkha (Yad aniccam tam dukkha). This is the true meaning of the Buddha's words: "In short, these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha." They are not the same for two successive moments. Here A is not equal to A. They remain in a stream of instantaneous arising and disappearing.

“O brahmanas, this is like a mountain river flowing quickly and far, taking everything with it; there is not a moment, not a moment when it does not flow, but it continues to flow and continues. So, brahmanas, human life is like a river.” 7. As the Buddha told Rathapala: “The world is in flux and impermanent.”

One disappears, causing the appearance of another in sequences of cause and effect. There is no immutable essence in them. Behind them there is nothing that can be called a permanent Self (Atman), a personality, or anything that can really be called "I". Everyone will agree that neither matter, nor sensation, nor perception, nor any activity of the mind, nor consciousness, can really be called "I" 8. But when these five bodily and mental aggregates, which are interdependent, act together as bodily- spiritual structure 9, we have the idea of ​​"I". But this is only a false idea, a mental formation, only one of the 52 mental formations from the fourth Aggregate that we have just discussed, namely, this idea of ​​the self, the idea of ​​the Self (sakkaya-ditthi).

Together these five Aggregates, what we usually call "being", are themselves dukkha (samkhara-dukkha). There is no other “being” or “I” behind these five aggregates that experiences dukkha.

As Buddhaghosa says:

“Obvious suffering exists, but the sufferer cannot be found;

There are things to do, but the one who does it cannot be found.”

There is no motionless mover behind the movement. It's just movement. It is not true to say that life moves, but life itself is movement. Life and movement are not two different things. In other words, there is no thinker behind the thought. The thought itself is the thinker. Here we cannot fail to notice how diametrically opposed the Buddhist view is to Descartes' "cohito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Now we can raise the question of whether life has a beginning. According to the teachings of the Buddha, the beginning of the lifestream of living beings cannot be conceived. This answer may surprise someone who believes in the creation of life by God. But if you asked him: “What is the beginning of God?”, he would answer without hesitation: “God has no beginning,” without being surprised at his own answer. The Buddha says: “O bhikkhu, this continuous cycle (samsara) has no visible end, and the originally wandering and running beings, overwhelmed by ignorance (avijja), constrained by the shackles of craving (desire, tanha), cannot be seen.” And further, turning to ignorance, which is the main cause of the continuity of life, the Buddha says: “Initially ignorance cannot be seen in such a way as to claim that there was no ignorance up to such and such a point.” It is also impossible to say that there was no life before a certain point.

This is the meaning of the Noble Truth of Dukkha in brief. It is extremely important to clearly understand this First Noble Truth because, as the Buddha says, “he who sees dukkha also sees the arising of dukkha, also sees the cessation of dukkha, and also sees the path leading to the cessation of dukkha.”10

This does not make the life of a Buddhist sad and mournful, as some people incorrectly imagine. On the contrary, a true Buddhist is the happiest of beings. He has no fears or worries. He is always calm and unperturbed, he cannot be upset or confused by changes or disasters, because he sees things as they are. Buddha was never sad or despondent. He was described by his contemporaries as "always smiling" (mihitapubbamgama). In Buddhist painting and sculpture, the Buddha is always represented with a happy, serene, contented and compassionate expression. There is never a trace of suffering, torment or pain visible 11. Buddhist art and architecture, Buddhist temples never give the impression of dull or sad, but create an atmosphere of calm and serene joy.

Although there is suffering in life, a Buddhist should not become depressed, angry or impatient because of it. One of the fundamental evils in life, according to the Buddha, is “aversion” or hatred. Disgust (pratigha) is explained as "anger towards living beings, towards suffering and things pertaining to suffering." Its effect is to create the basis for unhappy states and bad behavior. So it is wrong to be impatient with suffering. Impatience or anger towards suffering will not eliminate it. On the contrary, it adds new worries, and also aggravates and aggravates already unpleasant circumstances. What is needed is not anger or impatience, but understanding the issue of suffering, how it arises and how to get rid of it, and then working accordingly with patience, wisdom, determination and diligence.

There are two ancient Buddhist books called Theragatha and Therigatha, which are full of joyful exclamations of the Buddha's disciples, men and women who found peace and happiness in life through his teachings. The ruler of Kosala once told the Buddha that unlike disciples from other religious systems who looked rough, haggard, emaciated, pale, unattractive, his disciples were “joyful and cheerful (hattha-pahattha), ecstatic and jubilant (udaggudagga), enjoying spiritual life (aohiratarupa), with satisfied senses (pinitindriya), free from anxiety (arrosukka), serene (pannaloma), peaceful (paradavutta) and living with the “mind of a gazelle” (i.e. with a light heart, migabhutena cetasa).” The ruler added that he believed that this healthy disposition was due to the fact that “these venerable ones have definitely comprehended the great and excellent teaching of the Blessed One.”

Buddhism is quite the opposite of the sad, sorrowful, repentant and despondent mentality that is considered an obstacle to the realization of Truth. It is interesting to remember here that joy (piti) is one of the seven “Ingredients of Enlightenment,” the essential qualities developed for the realization of Nirvana.

2. SECOND NOBLE TRUTH: SAMUDAYA
(The Emergence of Dukkha)

The Second Noble Truth is the truth about the arising or origin of dukkha (Dukkhasamudaya-arsacca). The most publicly available and well-known definition of the Second Truth, which can be found in numerous places in primary sources, is this:

“It is craving (passionate desire, tanha) that produces re-existence and re-becoming (ponobhavika), and that is bound with passionate greed (nandiragasahagata), and that finds new pleasures now and everywhere (tatratatrabhinadini), namely, (1) craving sense pleasures (kamatanha), (2) the thirst for existence and becoming (bhava-tanha), and (3) the thirst for non-existence (self-destruction, vibhava-tanha)."

It is this “thirst”, desire, greed, passion, manifesting itself in different ways, that gives rise to all types of suffering of living beings and their incessant manifestation. But it should not be considered the first cause, since, according to Buddhism, everything is relative and interdependent. Even this "thirst", tanha, considered the cause or source of dukkha, in its arising (samudaya) depends on something else, which is sensation (vedana) 1, and sensation arises depending on contact (phassa), and so on and and so on continues the cycle known as Conditioned Generation (Paticca-samuppada), which we will discuss later.

So tanha, "thirst" is not the first or only cause of dukkha. But it is the most tangible and immediate cause, the most important and all-pervading. 2 Therefore in some places of the Pali sources the definition includes other obscurations and defilements (kilesa, sasava dhamma), in addition to tanha, "thirst", which is always given first place. In view of the inevitable limitation of the space of our discussion, it will suffice to remember that this "thirst" has for its center a false idea of ​​self, arising from ignorance.

The term "lust" here includes not only desire and attachment for sense pleasures, wealth and power, but also desire and attachment for ideas and ideals, views, opinions, theories, concepts and beliefs (dhamma-tanha). According to the Buddha's reasoning, all disputes and worries in the world, from small personal family quarrels to great wars between countries and peoples, arise from this selfish "thirst." From this point of view, all economic, political and social difficulties are rooted in this selfish "thirst." Great statesmen who try to settle international disputes and speak of war and peace only in economic and political terms skim the surface and never penetrate deeply into the real root of the issue. As the Buddha told Rattapala: “The world needs and desires, and is enslaved by “thirst” (tanhadaso).”

Everyone will agree that all the troubles in the world are generated by selfish desire. This is not difficult to understand. But how this desire, "thirst" can produce re-existence and re-becoming (ponobhavika) is not an easy question to grasp. This is where we must discuss the deeper side of the Second Noble Truth. Here we need to have some understanding of the theory of karma and rebirth.

There are four “Foods” (ahara) in the sense of “cause” or “condition” necessary for the existence and stay of beings: (1) ordinary material food (kabalinkarahara), (2) contact of our senses (including the mind) with the external world ( phassahara), (3) consciousness (vinnyanahara), and (4) mental intention or will (manosanchetanahara).

Of these four, the last mentioned "mental intention" is the will to live, to exist, to re-exist, to last, to become again and again 3. It creates the root of existence and permanence, striving forward through good and bad actions (kusalakusalakamma). This is the same as "Intention" (cetana) 4. We saw earlier that intention is karma, as defined by the Buddha himself. Regarding the “mental intention” just mentioned above, the Buddha says: “When you understand the “food” of mental intention, you understand the three types of “thirst” (tanha).” 5 So the terms “thirst”, “intention”, “mental intention” and "karma" all mean the same thing: they mean the desire, the will to be, to exist, to re-exist, to become again and again, to grow again and again, to accumulate again and again more and more. This is the cause of the emergence of dukkha, which is located in the Aggregate of Mental Formations, one of the Five Aggregates that make up the being.

This is one of the most important and significant passages in the teachings of the Buddha. We must therefore clearly note and remember that the cause, the germ of the emergence of dukkha, is in dukkha itself, and not outside it. This is what is implied by the well-known expression often found in the Pali primary sources: Yam kinci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhammam - “Everything that has the nature of origination, the nature of coming into being, also carries within itself the nature, the germ of its own cessation.” This question will be raised again in the discussion of the Third Noble Truth, Nirodha.

So, the Pali word kamma or the Sanskrit word karma (from the root kri - to do) literally means "action", "doing". But in the Buddhist theory of karma it has a special meaning: it means only "intentional action" and not all action. It also does not mean the consequences of karma, as many people loosely and incorrectly use it. In Buddhist terminology, karma never refers to its consequences; its consequences are known as the "fruit" or "outcome" of karma (kamma-phala or kamma-vipaka).

An intention can be relatively good or bad, just as a desire can be relatively good or bad. So karma can be good or bad relatively. Good karma (kusala) produces good consequences and bad karma (akusala) produces bad consequences. "Craving", intention, karma, whether good or bad, have as their consequence one force: the power to continue - to continue in a good or bad direction. Whether it is good or bad, it is relative and is in a continuous cycle (samsara). The Arahant, although he acts, does not accumulate karma, since he is free from the false idea of ​​himself, from the “thirst” for incessant becoming, free from all other obscurations and defilements (kilesa, sasava dhamma). There is no rebirth for him.

The theory of karma should not be confused with so-called "moral justice" or "reward and punishment." The idea of ​​moral justice or reward and punishment arises from the false idea of ​​a supreme being, God, who is the lawgiver, the dispenser of justice, and the decider of what is right and what is wrong. The term “justice” is ambiguous and dangerous, and in its name more harm has been done to humanity than good. The theory of karma is a theory of cause and effect, action and reaction; it is a natural law and has nothing to do with the idea of ​​reward and punishment. Every intentional action has its consequences and its outcome. If a good deed has good consequences, and a bad deed has bad consequences, then this is not justice, reward or punishment assigned by someone or some force passing judgment on your actions, but the property of the own nature of these deeds, their own law. This is not difficult to understand. But what is difficult to understand is that according to the theory of karma, the consequences of an intentional action can continue to manifest themselves even in life after death. Here we must clarify what death is according to Buddhism.

We have seen earlier that a being is nothing more than a combination of bodily and mental forces and energies. What we call death is the complete cessation of the activities of the physical body. Do all these forces and energies stop when the body ceases to function? Buddhism says: "No." Will, intention, desire, thirst to exist, to last, to become again and again - this is an amazing force that moves whole lives, whole existences, which even moves the whole world. This is the greatest power, the greatest energy in the world. According to Buddhism, this power does not stop with the cessation of the body's activities, which is death; but it continues to manifest itself in another form, producing a re-existence called rebirth.

Now another question arises: if there is no permanent and unchanging entity like the Self, the Self, or the Soul (Atman), what is it that can re-exist or be reborn after death? Before we move on to life after death, let's look at what life is and how it lasts now. What is called life, as we so often repeat, is a combination of the Five Aggregates, a combination of bodily and mental forces. They are constantly changing; they do not remain the same for two consecutive moments. Every moment they are born and die. “While Aggregates arise, disintegrate and die, O bhikkhus, in every moment you are born, disintegrate and die.” 6. So even now, during this life, in every moment we are born and die, but we continue to be. If we can understand that in this life we ​​can continue to be without a constant, unchanging entity, like the Soul or Self, why cannot we understand that these forces can themselves continue without the Soul or Self behind them, after the cessation of the activities of the body ?

When this physical body is no longer able to act, the forces do not die with it, but continue to take on some other image or form, which we call another life. In a child all the bodily, mental and spiritual faculties are tender and weak, but have within them the power to produce a fully matured man. The bodily and spiritual energies that make up the so-called being have within themselves the ability to take on a new form, gradually grow and gain full strength.

Since there is no permanent, unchanging entity, nothing passes from one moment to the next. Therefore, it is quite obvious that nothing permanent or unchangeable can pass or migrate from one life to the next. It is a sequence that goes on continuously but changes every moment. This sequence, in truth, is nothing more than movement. It is like a flame that burns all night: it is neither the same flame nor another. The child grows into a sixty-year-old man. Of course, a sixty-year-old person is not the same as a child sixty years ago, but it is not a different personality either. Similarly, a person who dies here and is reborn somewhere is neither the same person nor another (na cha so na cha anno). This is the duration of the same sequence. The difference between death and birth is only a moment of thought: the last moment of thought in this life determines the first moment of thought in the so-called next life, which, in reality, is a continuation of the same sequence. Also during this life, one moment of thought determines the next moment of thought. Therefore, from the point of view of Buddhism, the question of life after death is not a great mystery, and a Buddhist never worries about it. As long as there is a “thirst” to be and become, the continuous cycle (samsara) continues. He can only stop when he driving force, this "thirst" is cut off through wisdom, which sees Reality, Truth, Nirvana.

3. THIRD NOBLE TRUTH: NIRODHA
(Cessation of Dukkha)

The Third Noble Truth is the Truth of salvation, deliverance, freedom from suffering, from the permanence of dukkha (Dukkhanirodhaaryasachcha), which is Nibbana, (more commonly known in Sanskrit form Nirvana).

To completely eliminate dukkha, one must eliminate the main root of dukkha, "thirst" (tanha), as we saw earlier. Therefore, Nirvana is also known by the term Tanhakkaya - "Extinction of Thirst".

Now you ask: But what is Nirvana? Whole volumes have been written in response to this completely natural and simple question; they rather further confused than clarified the issue. The only reasonable answer that can be given to this question is that it cannot be fully and satisfactorily answered in words because human language is too poor to express the real nature of the Supreme Truth or Ultimate Reality which is Nirvana. Language is created and used by masses of people to express the things and thoughts experienced by their senses and mind. A supermundane experience like the Supreme Truth is not. Therefore there can be no words to express this experience, just as there are no words in the fish vocabulary to express the nature of solid earth. The turtle told his friend the fish that she (the turtle) had just returned to the lake after walking on land. “Of course,” said the fish, “you mean swimming.” The turtle tried to explain that you cannot swim on the ground, that it is hard and that people walk on it. But the fish insisted that nothing like that could happen, that it must be liquid, like its lake, with waves, and that one must be able to dive and swim there.

Words are signs representing known things and thoughts to us; and these signs do not and cannot convey the true nature of even ordinary things. Language is considered deceptive and misleading in the matter of understanding the Truth. Thus, the Lankavatara Sutra says that ignorant people get stuck in words, like an elephant in mud.

However, we cannot do without words. But if Nirvana is to be expressed and explained in positive terms, then we are apt to immediately seize upon the idea associated with these terms, although it may be quite the opposite of what is meant. Therefore it is usually expressed in negative terms 1 - perhaps this is a less dangerous way. Thus, it is often described by such negative terms as Tanhakkaya - “Extinction of Thirst”, Asamkhata - “Uncompounded”, “Unconditioned”, Viraga - “Lack of desire”, Nirodha - “Cessation”, Nibbana - “Extinction”, “Attenuation”.

Let's look at a few definitions and descriptions of Nirvana found in Pali sources:

“This is the complete cessation of that very “thirst” (tanha), abandonment of it, renunciation of it, deliverance from it, separation from it” 2.

"Pacification of all conditioned things, renunciation of all obscurations, extinction of 'craving', non-attachment, cessation, Nibbana."

"O bhikkhu, what is the Supreme (Asamkhata, the Unconditioned)? This, O bhikkhu, is the extinction of desire (ragakkhayo), the extinction of hatred (dosakkhayo), the extinction of delusion (mohakkhayo). This, O bhikkhu, is called the supreme."

"O Radha, the extinction of 'thirst' (Tanhakkayo) is Nibbana."

“O bhikkhu, among all things conditioned and unconditioned, non-attachment (viraga) is the highest. It is freedom from conceit, the destruction of craving, the eradication of attachment, the suppression of incessancy, the extinction of “thirst” (tanha), non-attachment, cessation, Nibbana.”

The answer of the senior disciple of Buddha Sariputta to the direct question posed by Parivrajaka "What is Nibbana?" is identical to the Buddha's definition of Asamkhata (above): "The extinction of desire, the extinction of hatred, the extinction of delusion."

"The abandonment and annihilation of desire and craving of these Five Aggregates of Attachment: this is the cessation of dukkha" 4.

“The cessation of Continuity and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana” 5.

“O bhikkhu, there is the unborn, the unmade, the unconditioned. If there were not the unborn, the unmade, the unconditioned, there would be no salvation for the born, the become, the conditioned. Since there is the unborn, the unbecome, the unconditioned, there is salvation for the born, the become, the conditioned.” .

“Here the four elements of hardness, fluidity, heat and movement do not find support; together the ideas of length and width, of subtle and gross, of good and evil, of name and image are destroyed; there is neither this world nor another, there is no departure, coming or staying, no death, no birth, no sense objects."

Since Nirvana is thus expressed in negative terms, many have received the misconception that it is something negative and expresses self-destruction. Nirvana is definitely not the destruction of the self, since there is no self to destroy. If there is anything at all, it is the destruction of delusion, the false idea of ​​self.

It is not true to say that Nirvana is negative or positive. The ideas of "negative" and "positive" are relative and exist in the realm of duality. These terms do not apply to Nirvana, the Supreme Truth, which is beyond duality and relativity.

A negative word does not necessarily show a negative state. In Sanskrit and Pali, health is denoted by the word arogya, a negative term literally meaning "absence of disease." But arogya (health) is not a negative state. The word "Immortal" (or its Sanskrit counterpart Amrita, or Pali Amata), also a synonym for Nirvana, is negative, but does not denote a negative state. Negation of negative values ​​is not negative. One of the famous synonyms of Nirvana is “Freedom” (Pali Mutti, Sans. Mukti). No one would say that freedom is negative. But even freedom has a negative side: freedom is always freedom from something obstructive, bad, negative. But freedom is not negative. Thus, Nirvana, Mutti or Vimutti, the Supreme Freedom is freedom from everything bad, freedom from greed, hatred and ignorance, freedom from all concepts of duality, relativity, time and space.

We can get some idea of ​​Nirvana as the Supreme Truth from the Dhatuvibhanga Sutta (No. 140) of the Majjhimanikaya. This extremely important reasoning was given by the Buddha to the already mentioned Pukkusati, whom the Master considered wise and serious, in the silence of the night under the cover of the pottery.

The essence of the relevant part of the sutta is as follows: “Man consists of six elements: solidity, fluidity, heat, movement, space and consciousness. When he considers them, he discovers that none of them is “mine”, “me” or “my self.” "He understands how consciousness arises, how pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent sensations arise and disappear. Through this knowledge, his mind becomes detached. He then finds in himself pure steadfastness (upekkha), which he can direct to achieve any high spiritual state, and knows that this pure steadfastness will last for a long time. But then he thinks:

If I concentrate this pure steadfastness on the Domain of Infinite Space and develop a mind in accordance with it, then this will be mental creation (samkhatam) 6. If I concentrate this Pure steadfastness on the Domain of Infinite Consciousness... on the Domain of Nothing... or on the Domain of nothing Perception or Non-Perception and develop a mind in accordance with it, then this will be mental creation." Then he neither creates mentally, nor desires incessancy and becoming (bhava) or destruction (vibhava) 7, he does not cling to anything in the world, in there is no agitation in him; because there is no agitation in him, he is completely at peace within himself (completely extinguished within - pacchattan yeva parinibbayati) And he knows: “The birth is over, the pure life has been lived, what has to be done has been done, nothing remains undone.” 8.

Now, when he experiences pleasant, unpleasant or indifferent sensations, he knows that it is impermanent, that it does not constrain him, that it is not experienced with passion. Whatever the sensation, he experiences it without becoming attached to it (visamyutto). He knows that all these sensations will calm down with the disintegration of the body, just as a flame disappears when the oil and wick run out.

“Therefore, O bhikkhus, he who is endowed with this is endowed with the highest wisdom, for the knowledge of the extinction of all dukkha is the highest noble wisdom.”

"This attainment of his, found in the Truth, is unshakable. O bhikkhu, that which is not reality (mosadhamma) is false; that which is reality (amosadhamma), Nibbana, is the Truth (Saccha). Therefore, O bhikkhu, who is endowed thereby, is endowed with the Supreme Truth. For the Supreme Noble Truth (paramam arsaccham) is Nibbana, which is Reality."

The Buddha explicitly uses the term Truth instead of Nibbana throughout: “I will teach you the Truth and the Path leading to the Truth.” Here Truth definitely means Nirvana.

So what is the Supreme Truth? According to Buddhism, the Supreme Truth is that there is nothing absolute in the world, that everything is relative, conditioned and impermanent, and that there is no unchanging, eternal, finite entity like the Self, Soul or Atman, whether within or without. This is the Supreme Truth. Truth is never negative, although there is a popular expression "negative truth." Comprehension of this Truth, i.e., seeing everything as it is (yathabhutam) without delusion or ignorance (avijja) 9, is the extinction of the hungry “thirst” (Tanhakkhaya) and the cessation (Nirodha) of dukkha, which is Nirvana. Here it is interesting and useful to remember the Mahayana view of Nirvana as not different from Samsara 10. The same thing is Samsara or Nirvana according to how you look at it - subjectively or objectively. This Mahayana view appears to have been developed from the ideas of the Pali Theravada sources to which we have just referred in our brief discussion.

It is wrong to think that Nirvana is the natural result of the extinction of craving. Nirvana is neither a consequence nor a result of anything. If it were an effect, it would be an effect produced by some cause. It would be samkhata, "produced" and "conditioned." Nirvana is neither cause nor effect. It is beyond cause and effect. Truth is neither a result nor a consequence. It is not generated like mystical, spiritual, mental states such as dhyana or samadhi. THE TRUTH IS. NIRVANA IS. The only thing you can do is to see it, to comprehend it. There is a path leading to the realization of Nirvana. But Nirvana is not the result of this path. 11. The path may lead you to a mountain, but the mountain is neither the result nor the consequence of the path. You can see light, but light is not the result of your vision.

People often ask: What after Nirvana? This question cannot arise because Nirvana is the Ultimate Truth. If she is the Ultimate, then nothing can happen after her. If there is anything after Nirvana, then it is this, and not Nirvana, that will be the Ultimate Truth. A monk named Radha put this question to the Buddha in another way: "For what purpose (or end) is Nirvana?" This question suggests something after Nirvana, stating some purpose or end for it. Therefore, the Buddha replied: “O Radha, this question does not grasp its limits (i.e., past the goal). For one living a holy life, Nirvana is the final immersion (in the Supreme Truth) - the goal, the final limit.”

Some well-known, carelessly constructed expressions such as "Buddha entered into Nirvana or Parinirvana after his death" have created the basis for many far-fetched speculations about Nirvana. 12 When you hear the statement that "Buddha entered into Nirvana or Parinirvana," you consider Nirvana to be a place, a kingdom or a position where there is some kind of existence, and try to imagine it in terms of the meanings of the word "existence" as far as you know. This well-known expression “entered Nirvana” has no correspondence in the original sources. There is no such thing as "entering Nirvana after death." There is a word parinibbbuto used to denote the death of a Buddha or an Arahant who realized Nirvana, but it does not mean "entry into Nirvana." Parinibbuto simply means "completely quiescent", "completely extinguished", "completely extinguished", since there is no re-existence for a Buddha or Arahant after his death.

Now another question arises: What happens to the Buddha or Arahant after his death, parinirvana? This refers to the section of unanswered questions (avyakata). Even when the Buddha spoke about this, he pointed out that there are no words in our vocabulary that could express what happens to the Arahant after his death. In reply to the parivrajaka named Vaccha, the Buddha said that terms like "born" or "unborn" are not applicable to the case of the Arahant, since that is matter, sensation, perception, mental formations, consciousness - with which terms like "begotten" or "unborn", is completely destroyed and uprooted, never to arise again after his death.

The Arahant after his death is often compared to a fire that goes out when the fuel runs out, or to the flame of a lamp that goes out when the wick and oil run out. Here it should be understood clearly and distinctly, without any delusion, that what is compared to an extinguished flame or fire is not Nirvana, but a “being” consisting of the Five Aggregates that has realized Nirvana. Emphasis must be placed on this point because many people, even some great scientists, have misunderstood and interpreted this comparison as referring to Nirvana. Nirvana is never compared to a fire or a lamp going out.

There is another common question: “If there is no Self, no Atman, then who realizes Nirvana?” Before moving on to Nirvana, let's ask the question: "Who is thinking now if not Me?" We saw earlier that what thinks is thought, that behind the thought there is no thinker. Likewise, this wisdom (panna), comprehension is that which comprehends, realizes. There is no other “I” behind comprehension, realization. In discussing the source of dukkha, we saw that whatever it is - a being, a thing or a system - if it has the nature of origination, then it carries within itself the nature, the germ of its cessation, its destruction. So dukkha, the continuous cycle of samsara, has the nature of arising, and therefore it must also have the nature of cessation, disappearance. Dukkha arises due to "thirst" (tanha) and ceases due to wisdom (pañña). Both "thirst" and wisdom are within the Five Aggregates, as we saw earlier 13.

So, the germ of their emergence, as well as their cessation, is within the Five Aggregates. This is the true meaning of the Buddha's famous saying: "Within this very fathom-long sentient body, I proclaim peace, the arising of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world." This means that all Four Noble Truths are within the Five Aggregates, i.e., within ourselves. (Here the word "world" (loka) is used instead of dukkha.) This also means that there is no external force that causes the arising and cessation of dukkha.

When wisdom is developed and cultivated in accordance with the Fourth Noble Truth (next in discussion), it sees the mystery of life, reality as it is. When the secret is revealed, when the Truth is seen, all the forces that feverishly in obscurity produce the permanence of samsara become calm and are no longer capable of producing karmic formations, since there is no more obscuration, there is no longer a “thirst” for permanence. It is similar to a mental illness that is cured when the patient discovers and sees the cause or mystery of his illness.

In almost all religions, the summum bonum (the highest good) can only be achieved after death. But Nirvana can be comprehended and realized already in this life; you don't have to wait until you die to "achieve" it.

He who has comprehended the Truth and realized Nirvana is the happiest being in the world. He is free from all the “complexes” and obsessions, worries and anxieties that torment others. His spiritual health is perfect. He does not regret the past and does not reflect on the future. He lives entirely in the present. Therefore, he enjoys things and rejoices in them in the purest sense, without any self-reflection. He is joyful, enthusiastic, enjoying pure life, his senses are satisfied, he is free from worry, peaceful and serene. Because he is free from personal desires, hatred, ignorance, vanity, pride and all such "obscurations", he is pure and affectionate, full of universal love, compassion, kindness, empathy, understanding and tolerance. His service to others is the purest, for he has no thoughts of himself. He does not acquire anything, does not accumulate anything, even if it is something spiritual, since he is free from the delusion of the Self and the “thirst” of becoming.

Nirvana is beyond all concepts of duality and relativity. Therefore, it is above our ideas about good and evil, right and wrong, existence and non-existence. Even the word "happiness" used to describe Nirvana has a completely different meaning here. Sariputta once said: “O friend, Nirvana is happiness! Nirvana is happiness!” Then Udayi asked: “But, friend Sariputta, how can this be happiness if there is no sensation?” Sariputta's answer was highly philosophical and beyond ordinary understanding: "The fact that there is no sensation is in itself happiness."

Nirvana is beyond logic and reasoning (atakkavacara). No matter how much we engage in, often as an empty intellectual pastime, high-spirited debates, discussing Nirvana or Ultimate Truth or Reality, we will never understand it in this way. A kindergarten child should not argue about the theory of relativity. But if he instead studies patiently and diligently, one day he may understand it. Nirvana “is realized, realized by the wise in themselves” (pacchattam veditabbo vinnyuhi). If we follow the Path patiently and diligently, seriously educate and purify ourselves, achieve the necessary spiritual development, we can one day realize it, comprehend it in ourselves, without burdening ourselves with puzzles and pompous words.

Therefore, let us now turn to the Path leading to the realization, the realization of Nirvana.

4. FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH: MAGGA
(Path)

The Fourth Noble Truth is the truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkhanirodhagaminipatipada-aryasacca). This is known as the "Middle Way" because it avoids two extremes: one extreme is the search for happiness in sensual pleasures, "low, common, meaningless, ungrateful"; and the other is the search for happiness through self-mortification various types asceticism, “painful, worthless, meaningless.” Having first experienced these two extremes on his own, finding them useless, the Buddha, through personal experience, discovered the Middle Way, “giving vision and knowledge leading to Peace, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvana.” This Middle Path is usually referred to as the Noble Eightfold Path, since it consists of eight divisions or orders: namely,

1. Right Understanding (Samma ditthi),

2. Right Thought (Samma Sankappa),

3. Right Speech (Samma vaca),

4. Right Action (Samma Kammanta),

5. Right Lifestyle (Samma ajiva),

6. Right Effort (Samma Vayama),

7. Right Mindfulness (Samma sati),

8. Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi).

Almost all of the Buddha's teachings, to which he devoted 45 years of his life, deal in one way or another with this Path. He explained it in various ways and in different words to different people, according to the stage of their development and their ability to understand and follow it. The essence of the many thousands of instructions that are scattered throughout the Buddhist Scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path.

There is no need to think that the eight divisions or grades of the Path must be followed and practiced one after another in the order they are listed in the usual list above. But they must be developed more or less simultaneously and to the extent possible, in accordance with the abilities of each individual. They are all interconnected, and each helps nurture the others.

These eight components are aimed at promoting and perfecting the three pillars of Buddhist education and training, namely: (a) Moral Conduct (Strength), (b) Subjugation of the Mind (Samadhi) and (c) Wisdom (Pañña). Therefore, in order to harmonize and better understand the eight divisions of the Path, it will be more useful if we relate and explain them according to these three headings.

Moral behavior (Sila) is built on the broad concept of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the teachings of the Buddha are based. Unfortunately, many researchers forget this great ideal of the Buddha's teaching and plunge into dry philosophical and metaphysical wanderings when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching “for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, out of compassion for the world” (bahujanahitaya bahujanasukhaya lokanukampaya).

According to Buddhism, there are two qualities that a person should equally develop in order to be perfect: compassion (karuna) on the one hand, and wisdom (panna) on the other. Compassion here means love, mercy, kindness, tolerance and similar noble qualities of the emotional side, qualities of the heart, while wisdom represents the intellectual side, qualities of the mind. If a person develops only the emotional, neglecting the intellectual, he may become a good-hearted fool; whereas the development of only the intellectual side, neglecting the emotional, turns a person into a hard-hearted intellect, insensitive to others. Therefore, to be perfect, it is necessary to develop both equally. This is the goal of the Buddhist way of life: in it wisdom and compassion are inseparably linked together, as we will see later.

So, Moral Conduct (Strength), based on love and compassion, includes the three components of the Noble Eightfold Path, namely: Right Speech, Right Action and Right Lifestyle (list numbers: 3, 4, 5).

Right Speech means abstaining (1) from lying, (2) from slander, slander and speech likely to cause hatred, disunity and discord among individuals or groups of people, (3) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and offensive speech, and (4) from empty, stupid, meaningless chatter and gossip. When a person abstains from these kinds of wrong and harmful speech, he should naturally speak the truth, should use words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful and useful. He should not speak carelessly: speech should be appropriate to the place and time. If you cannot say anything useful, then you should maintain “noble silence.”

Right Action aims to promote moral, honorable and peaceful behavior. It exhorts us to refrain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest relationships, from illicit sexual intercourse, and to help others to lead a peaceful and dignified life correctly.

Right Livelihood means the need to abstain from making a living through activities that harm others, such as dealing in deadly weapons, intoxicants, poisons, killing animals, fraud, etc., and the need to make a living through activities that are honest, impeccable and does not harm others. Here it can be clearly seen that Buddhism is firmly opposed to all types of war, declaring the trade in deadly weapons to be evil and an unrighteous means of subsistence.

These three components of the Eightfold Path (Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood) constitute Moral Conduct. It should be understood that Buddhist ethical and moral behavior is aimed at promoting a happy and harmonious life for both the individual and society. This moral behavior is considered the necessary foundation for all higher spiritual achievements. No spiritual development is possible without this moral foundation.

Next comes Subjugation of the Mind, which includes the other three limbs of the Eightfold Path, namely Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. (Numbers 6, 7, 8 on the list).

Right Effort is the energetic will (1) to prevent the occurrence of unwholesome and harmful states of mind, and (2) to get rid of such unwholesome and harmful states of mind that have already arisen in a person, and also (3) to produce, cause the emergence of those good and beneficial states of mind that have not yet arisen, and (4) develop and bring to perfection the good and useful states of mind already present in a person.

Right Mindfulness is being carefully aware of, being attentive to (1) the activities of the body (kaya), (2) sensations or feelings (vedana), and (3) the activities of the mind (citta) and (4) ideas, thoughts, concepts and things (dhamma).

The practice of focusing on breathing (anapanasati) is one of the well-known body-related exercises for developing the mind. There are several other ways to develop mindfulness in relation to the body - as ways of contemplation.

In relation to feelings and sensations, one should be clearly aware of all types of feelings and sensations - pleasant, unpleasant and uncertain, how they arise and disappear within.

Regarding the activities of the mind, one should be aware of whether the mind is greedy or not, consumed by hatred or not, clouded or not, distracted or concentrated, etc. In this method one should be aware of all the movements of the mind, how they arise and disappear.

Regarding ideas, thoughts, concepts and things, one should know their nature, how they arise and disappear, how they

Hello, dear readers!

Today you will get acquainted with one of the fundamental teachings in Buddhism, which underlies the philosophy of all its schools. The Four Truths of Buddhism is what it is called, but Buddhist adherents prefer a more exalted name: four noble truth.

Starting point

The five novices first learned them from more than 2,500 years ago. It was in the Deer Grove of Benares, in northeastern India.

Siddhartha Gautama shared with the associates with whom he practiced earlier,creed, which was revealed to him after gaining enlightenment. It happenedemergence of Buddhism.

This first sermon, which is also called the Benares Discourse, in the anthology of Buddhism is called “Dharmachakra-pravartana-sutra”, which means “Sutra of turning the wheel of teaching”.

The canonical source briefly covers the basic Buddhist principles. This is what the Buddha said to the monks: “There are two excesses that novices should not allow.

The first of them is vulgar and low commitment to lust. And the second is severe and senseless exhaustion of oneself."

What are the ways to achieve knowledge, tranquility, comprehension, enlightenment? It will only lead to them.”

Then he told them the point chatvari aryasatyani – four noble truths, and once again reminded of the importance of the eightfold path, which in Buddhism is also commonly called the middle path, since it lies between two extremes.

Four axioms

Let us take a closer look at the four postulates that, according to Shakyamuni, lie at the core of existence. He told fellow believers that only by clearly realizing them did he become confident that he had achieved “unsurpassed supreme enlightenment.”

The Buddha also noted that comprehension of this philosophy is difficult to perceive and understand, that it cannot be reached by simple reasoning, and it will only be revealed to the wise. Pleasure captivated and bewitched everyone in this world, he said. We can say that there is a cult of pleasure.

Those who admire him so much will not be able to understand the conditionality of everything that exists. They will not understand both the renunciation of the causes of rebirth and Nirvana. But there are still people “whose eyes are only slightly dusted with dust.” So they can understand.

For the first time, these axioms reached the Russian-speaking reader in 1989 in the interpretation of the Russian translator and Buddhist scholar A.V. Paribka.

1) The first postulate is that life exists suffering – dukkha. The difficulty in translating this term lies in the fact that in our mentality suffering is understood as some kind of severe physical illness or powerful negative manifestations at the mental level.

Buddhism views suffering more broadly: it is both pain associated with birth, illness, misfortune or death, and constant dissatisfaction with life in pursuit of satisfying constantly changing desires, many of which are practically impossible to fulfill.

Impossible:

• don't grow old
• live forever
• take your accumulated wealth with you after death,
• always be with the one you love,
• don't face the unpleasant.

The list goes on and on. Such is the imperfection of human existence, which leads to constant dissatisfaction. This word more accurately conveys the meaning of the Pali dukkha.

2) A person is not able to change the existing state of affairs, but he is quite capable of changing his attitude towards it.

He can do this only by realizing the cause of dukkha. The second truth that the Buddha revealed to the ascetics was that reason suffering is ignorance, which leads to the emergence of irrepressible desires have everything at once.

There are three types of thirst:

• Desire to enjoy the five senses.
• The desire to live long or forever.
• The desire for self-destruction.

If everything is clear with the first two, then the third desire requires explanation. It is based on an incorrect materialistic idea of ​​one’s real self. Those who are attached to their “I” think that it is irretrievably destroyed after death and is not connected by any reason with the periods before and after it.

Desire is stimulated:

• visible forms,
• sounds,
• smell,
• taste,
• bodily sensations
• ideas.

If all this is pleasant, then the person who experiences the above begins to feel attachment to it, which leads to future birth, aging, sadness, crying, pain, sorrow, despair and death. Everything is interdependent in this world. This describes suffering in its entirety.

Thanks to the second noble truth, it becomes clear that the seeming injustice of our fate is the result of something that arose partly in this life, and partly from our previous forms of existence.

The actions of the body, speech and mind determine the formation of the karmic process, which actively influences the formation of destiny.

It should be borne in mind that there are no real “I” passing through the raging sea of ​​rebirths, but there is a stream of continuously changing dharmas, which, as a result of their evil or good essence and activities, appear in different places as faceless creatures, then people, then animals or other entities.

3) However, there is still hope. In the third truth, the Buddha states that suffering can be ended. To do this, you need to renounce passionate desire, renounce and free yourself from it, stop and abandon all thoughts about this thirst.

You just need to correctly recognize the nature of what you want as impermanent, unsatisfactory and impersonal, and realize your restless desire as a disease. This desire can be quenched by following the above-mentioned middle path.

4) When thirst subsides, attachment will cease, which means the karmic process will stop, which will no longer lead to birth, therefore, it will eliminate aging, all forms of suffering and death.

After this, only the highest peace awaits the person, the end of the karmic process, the absence of grounds for a new birth, detachment, which is called nirvana. The person no longer experiences either physical or mental pain. The appeal is obvious.

The Buddha was able to avoid the two extremes of life, hedonism and asceticism, and achieve enlightenment by following the middle path. He outlined its stages to his followers as the fourth immutable truth.

The Noble Eightfold Path is sometimes misunderstood, thinking that its stages must be completed one by one, practicing the correct ones:

1. understanding,
2. thinking,
3. speech,
4. activity,
5. earning a living,
6. effort,
7. awareness,
8. concentration.

But in fact, you need to start with the right moral attitudes - sila (3-5). Lay Buddhists generally follow the Buddha's five moral precepts, also called virtues, precepts, or vows:

• do not harm or kill living things;
• do not appropriate what belongs to others;
• refrain from inappropriate sexual behavior;
• do not lie or abuse someone's trust;
• do not use drugs that cloud the mind.

After this, you should systematically train your mind by practicing right concentration (6-8).

Having carefully prepared in this way, a person acquires a mind and character receptive to correct understanding and thinking (1-2), that is, he becomes wise. However, it is impossible to set out on a journey without having at least a minimal understanding of the same suffering, which is why understanding tops this list.

At the same time, it completes it when all of the above successfully completed actions lead a person to an understanding of all things “as they are.” Without this, it is impossible to become righteous and plunge into nirvana.

This path is free from suffering, it provides a person with pure vision and one must go through it oneself, since Buddhas are great teachers, but they cannot do it for someone.

Conclusion

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