What ions are called cations. · Local blood flow improves. Cardiovascular system, normalization of blood pressure, central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary system and general rejuvenation of the body is noted

Chemistry is a “magical” science. Where else can you get a safe substance by combining two dangerous ones? We are talking about ordinary table salt - NaCl. Let's take a closer look at each element, based on previously acquired knowledge about the structure of the atom.

Sodium - Na, alkali metal (group IA).
Electronic configuration: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1

As we can see, sodium has one valence electron, which it “agrees” to give up in order for its energy levels to become complete.

Chlorine - Cl, halogen (group VIIA).
Electronic configuration: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5

As you can see, chlorine has 7 valence electrons and is “missing” one electron for its energy levels to become complete.

Now can you guess why the chlorine and sodium atoms are so “friendly”?

It was previously said that inert gases (group VIIIA) have fully “completed” energy levels - their outer s and p orbitals are completely filled. This is why they enter into chemical reactions with other elements so poorly (they simply don’t need to be “friends” with anyone, since they “don’t want to give or take electrons”).

When the valence energy level is filled, the element becomes stable or rich.

The noble gases are “lucky”, but what about the rest of the elements of the periodic table? Of course, “looking” for a pair is like a door lock and a key - a certain lock has its own key. Yes and chemical elements, trying to fill their external energy level, they enter into reactions with other elements, creating stable compounds. Because the outer s (2 electrons) and p (6 electrons) orbitals are filled, then this process is called "octet rule"(octet = 8)

Sodium: Na

The outer energy level of the sodium atom contains one electron. To transition to a stable state, sodium must either give up this electron or accept seven new ones. Based on the above, sodium will donate an electron. In this case, its 3s orbital “disappears”, and the number of protons (11) will be one greater than the number of electrons (10). Therefore, the neutral sodium atom will turn into a positively charged ion - cation.

Electronic configuration of sodium cation: Na+ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6

Particularly attentive readers will rightly say that neon (Ne) has the same electronic configuration. So did sodium turn into neon? Not at all - don't forget about protons! There are still them; for sodium - 11; neon has 10. They say that the sodium cation is isoelectronic neon (since their electronic configurations are the same).

Let's summarize:

  • the sodium atom and its cation differ by one electron;
  • the sodium cation is smaller in size because it loses its external energy level.

Chlorine: Cl

For chlorine, the situation is exactly the opposite - it has seven valence electrons at its outer energy level and needs to accept one electron to become stable. The following processes will occur:

  • The chlorine atom will take on one electron and become negatively charged. anion(17 protons and 18 electrons);
  • electron configuration of chlorine: Cl- 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
  • The chlorine anion is isoelectronic with argon (Ar);
  • since the external energy level of chlorine has been “completed”, the radius of the chlorine cation will be slightly larger than that of the “pure” chlorine atom.

Table salt (sodium chloride): NaCl

Based on the above, it can be seen that the electron that gives up sodium becomes the electron that gets chlorine.

In the crystal lattice of sodium chloride, each sodium cation is surrounded by six chlorine anions. Conversely, each chlorine anion is surrounded by six sodium cations.

As a result of the movement of an electron, ions are formed: sodium cation(Na+) and chlorine anion(Cl -). Since opposite charges attract, a stable compound is formed NaCl (sodium chloride) - table salt.

As a result of the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions, ionic bond- stable chemical compound.

Compounds with ionic bonds are called salts. In the solid state, all ionic compounds are crystalline substances.

It should be understood that the concept of an ionic bond is quite relative; strictly speaking, only those substances in which the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms that form the ionic bond can be equal to or more than 3 can be classified as “pure” ionic compounds. For this reason, only a dozen exist in nature purely ionic compounds are fluorides of alkali and alkaline earth metals (for example, LiF; relative electronegativity Li=1; F=4).

In order not to “offend” ionic compounds, chemists agreed to consider that a chemical bond is ionic if the difference in electronegativity of the atoms forming a molecule of a substance is equal to or more than 2. (see the concept of electronegativity).

Cations and anions

Other salts are formed according to a similar principle as sodium chloride. The metal gives up electrons, and the non-metal receives them. From the periodic table it is clear that:

  • elements of group IA (alkali metals) donate one electron and form a cation with a charge of 1 +;
  • Group IIA elements (alkaline earth metals) donate two electrons and form a cation with a charge of 2+;
  • Group IIIA elements donate three electrons and form a cation with a charge of 3+;
  • Group VIIA elements (halogens) accept one electron and form an anion with a charge of 1 - ;
  • Group VIA elements accept two electrons and form an anion with a charge of 2 -;
  • elements of the VA group accept three electrons and form an anion with a charge of 3 -;

Common monoatomic cations

Common monoatomic anions

Not everything is so simple with transition metals (group B), which can give up different numbers of electrons, forming two (or more) cations with different charges. For example:

  • Cr 2+ - divalent chromium ion; chromium(II)
  • Mn 3+ - trivalent manganese ion; manganese(III)
  • Hg 2 2+ - diatomic divalent mercury ion; mercury(I)
  • Pb 4+ - tetravalent lead ion; lead(IV)

Many transition metal ions can have different oxidation states.

Ions are not always monatomic; they can consist of a group of atoms - polyatomic ions. For example, the diatomic divalent mercury ion Hg 2 2+: two mercury atoms are bonded into one ion and have a net charge of 2+ (each cation has a charge of 1+).

Examples of polyatomic ions:

  • SO 4 2- - sulfate
  • SO 3 2- - sulfite
  • NO 3 - - nitrate
  • NO 2 - - nitrite
  • NH 4 + - ammonium
  • PO 4 3+ - phosphate

Cations and anions perform important functions in the body, for example:

Responsible for the osmolality of body fluids,

They form a bioelectric membrane potential,

Catalyze the metabolic process

Determine the actual reaction (pH) of the body fluid,

Stabilize certain tissues (bone tissue),

Serve as an energy depot (phosphates),

Participate in the blood coagulation system.

A 70 kg human body contains approximately 100 g of sodium (60 mEq/kg), 67% of which is actively metabolized (Geigy). Half of the body's sodium is found in the extracellular space. A third is located in bones and cartilage. The sodium content in the cells is low (see also Fig. 6).

Plasma concentration: 142(137-147) mEq/L

Main role

Primary responsibility for osmolality in the extracellular space. 92% of all cations and 46% of all extracellular osmotically active particles are sodium ions.

Sodium concentration can determine plasma osmolality, with the exception of pathological processes such as diabetes mellitus, uremia (see 1.1.2).

The amount of extracellular space depends on the sodium content.

At salt-free diets or the use of saluretics, the extracellular space decreases; it increases with increased sodium administration.

Influence on the intracellular space through the sodium content in plasma. When extracellular osmolality increases, for example, with the introduction of a hypertonic solution of table salt, water is removed from the cells; when plasma osmolality decreases, for example, when salt is lost, the cells become hydrated.

Participation in the creation of bioelectric membrane potential. Potassium

The human body weighing 70 kg contains approximately 150 g of potassium (54 mEq/kg), 90% of it is actively involved in metabolism (Geigy); 98% of the body's potassium is located in cells and 2% is extracellular (Fleischer, Frohlich). 70% of the total potassium content (Black) is determined in the muscles.

The potassium concentration is not the same in all cells. Muscle cells contain 160 mEq of potassium/kg of water (Geigy), erythrocytes contain only 87 mEq/kg of packed red blood cells (Burck, 1970).

Plasma potassium concentration: 4.5 (3.8-4.7) mEq per liter.

Main role

Participates in the utilization of carbohydrates;

Necessary for protein synthesis; when breaking down proteins potassium

released; binds during synthesis (ratio: 1 g of nitrogen to approximately 3 mEq of potassium);

Has an important effect on neuromuscular excitation.

Each muscle cell and nerve fiber at rest is a potassium battery, the charge of which is largely determined by the ratio of potassium concentrations inside and outside the cells. The excitation process is associated with the active inclusion of extracellular sodium ions into the internal fibers and the slow release of intracellular potassium from the fibers.

The drugs cause the removal of intracellular potassium. Conditions associated with low potassium levels are accompanied by a pronounced effect of digitalis preparations. With chronic potassium deficiency, tubular reabsorption is impaired (Nizet).

Potassium is involved in the activity of muscles, heart, nervous system, kidneys, every cell.

Peculiarities

Of great practical interest is the relationship between the concentration of potassium in plasma and the potassium content inside the cell. There is a principle that with a balanced metabolism, the potassium content in the plasma determines its total content in the entire body. This ratio is influenced by:

Extracellular fluid pH value,

Metabolic energy in the cell

Kidney function.

Effect of pH value on plasma potassium concentration

With a normal potassium content in the body, a decrease in pH increases the amount of potassium in the plasma (an increase in pH decreases. Example: pH 7.3, acidemia - plasma potassium concentration 4.8 mEq/l pH 7.4, normal - plasma potassium concentration 4.5 meq/l pH 7.5, alkalemia - plasma potassium concentration 4.2 meq/l (Values ​​calculated according to Siggaard-Andersen, 1965.) Acidemia corresponds to a slight increase in plasma potassium concentration compared to the norm. , a value of 4.5 meq/l of plasma indicates an intracellular potassium deficiency in case of acidemia. On the contrary, in case of alkalemia, in the case of normal potassium content, one should expect a reduced content of potassium in the plasma. Knowing the acid-base state, one can better estimate the amount of potassium in the plasma:

Acidemia → [K]plasma - increase Alkalemia → [K]plasma - decrease

These dependencies, identified in the experiment, are not always clinically provable, since further processes develop simultaneously that affect the amount of potassium in the plasma, as a result of which the impact of one process is neutralized (Heine, Quoss, Guttler).

The influence of cell metabolic energy on plasma potassium concentration

An increased outflow of cellular potassium into the extracellular space occurs, for example, when:

Insufficient oxygen supply to tissues (shock),

Increased destruction of proteins (catabolic state).

Reduced carbohydrate utilization (diabetes),

Cellular dehydration.

An intense influx of potassium into cells is observed, for example, with:

Improved glucose utilization under the influence of insulin,

Enhanced protein synthesis (growth, administration of anabolic steroids, repair phase after surgery, injury),

Cellular rehydration.

Destructive processes →[K]plasma - increase Regenerative processes →[K]plasma - decrease

Sodium ions introduced into large quantities, increase cellular potassium metabolism and promote increased excretion of potassium through the kidneys (especially if sodium ions are associated not with chlorine ions, but with easily metabolized anions, such as citrate). Plasma potassium concentration due to excess sodium decreases as a result of increased extracellular space. A decrease in sodium leads to a decrease in extracellular space and an increase in plasma potassium concentration:

Excess sodium → [K] plasma - decrease Lack of sodium → [K] plasma - increase

Effect of the kidneys on plasma potassium concentration

The kidneys have less influence on potassium retention than sodium retention. If there is a lack of potassium, the kidneys initially have difficulty retaining it, so losses may exceed administration. On the contrary, in case of an overdose, potassium is quite easily removed by a stream of urine. With oliguria and anuria, the amount of potassium in the plasma increases.

Oliguria, anuria→ [K] plasma - increase

Thus, extracellular (plasma) potassium concentration is the result dynamic equilibrium between:

Introduction;

The ability of cells to retain, depending on the pH value and metabolic state (anabolism - catabolism);

Renal excretion of potassium depending on:

acid-base state,

· urine flow,

· aldosterone;

Extrarenal loss of potassium, for example in the gastrointestinal tract. Calcium

An adult weighing 70 kg contains approximately 1000-1500 g of calcium - from 50,000 to 75,000 mEq (1.4-2% of body weight), 99% of calcium is found in bones and teeth (Rapoport).

Plasma concentration: 5 (4.5-5.5) mEq/L with slight individual variations (Rapoport).

Calcium in plasma is distributed in three fractions, namely 50-60% is ionized and capable of diffusion, 35-50% is associated with proteins (not ionized and not capable of diffusion), 5-10% is complex bound with organic acids (citric acid ) - not ionized, but capable of diffusion (Geigy). There is a mobile equilibrium between individual calcium fractions, which depends on pH. With acidosis, for example, the degree of dissociation, and, consequently, the amount of dissociated calcium increases (slows down the phenomenon of tetany during acidosis).

Only calcium ions are biologically active. Accurate data to determine the state of calcium metabolism is obtained only by measuring the amount of ionized calcium (Pfoedte, Ponsold).

Main role

Component of bones. Calcium in bones occurs as an insoluble structural mineral, primarily calcium phosphate (hydroxylapatite).

Effect on the excitability of nerves and muscles. Calcium ions mediate the bioelectrical phenomenon between the surface of the fibers and the contractile reactions within the fibers.

Effect on membrane permeability.

Contribution to the blood coagulation system.

Peculiarities

The absorption of calcium in the intestine is influenced by the composition of food. Thus, calcium absorption is promoted by citric acid and vitamin D, and organic acids, such as oxalic acid (spinach, rhubarb), phytic acid (bread, cereals), and fatty acids (gallbladder diseases), are hindered. The optimal calcium to phosphate ratio (1.2.1) promotes absorption. Parathyroid hormone, vitamin D and calcitonin play a leading role in the regulation of calcium levels.

The human body weighing 70 kg contains 20-28 g of magnesium (Hanze) - from 1600 to 2300 mEq. It is determined predominantly in the skeleton (half the total amount), less in the kidneys, liver, thyroid gland, muscles and nervous system (Simon). Magnesium, along with potassium, is the most important cation in animal and plant cells.

Plasma concentration: 1.6-2.3 mEq/L (Hanze).

Approximately 55-60% of plasma magnesium is ionized, 30% bound to proteins and 15% bound to complex compounds (Geigy).

Main role

Implications for numerous enzyme-driven processes

(cell regeneration, oxygen utilization and energy release; Simon). Magnesium is important for glycolysis, various steps of the citrate cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, phosphate activation, nucleases, various peptidases (Hanze).

Inhibits the transfer of nervous excitation to end point(similar to curare; antagonist - calcium ions), resulting in a decrease in neuromuscular excitation.

Depressive effect on the central nervous system.

Decreased contractility of smooth muscles and myocardium.

Suppression of excitation in the sinus node and disruption of atrioventricular conduction (at very high doses, cardiac arrest in diastole).

Vasodilation.

Promotion of fibrinolysis (Hackethal, Bierstedt).

Peculiarities

Along with absorption and excretion through the kidneys, an incompletely studied pancreatic hormone is involved in the regulation of magnesium content in the body. Magnesium deficiency leads to the removal of magnesium and calcium ions from the bones. Absorption is reduced by foods rich in protein and calcium, as well as alcohol (Simon).

The human body weighing 70 kg contains approximately 100 g of chlorine - 2800 mEq (Rapoport). Plasma concentration: 103 (97-108) mEq/L

Main role

Chlorine is the most important part of plasma anions.

Chlorine ions are involved in the formation of membrane potential.

Hydrocarbonate

Bicarbonate refers to the variable portion of the ions. Changes in anion content are balanced by bicarbonate. The bicarbonate - carbonic acid system is the most important extracellular buffer system. The pH value of the extracellular space can be calculated from the ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid (for further discussion, see 1.3).

The body of an adult contains 500-800 g of phosphate (1% of body weight). 88% are located in the skeleton (Grossmann), the rest is located intracellularly and only a small part is in the extracellular space (Rapoport).

Phosphate can be either organic (as a component of phosphoproteins, nucleic acids, phosphatides, coenzymes - Rapoport) or inorganic. Approximately 12% of plasma phosphate is bound to proteins.

Plasma concentration (inorganic phosphorus): 1.4-2.6 mEq/L.

Main role

Together with calcium, it forms insoluble hydroxyapatite (supportive function of bones).

Participation in the metabolism of carbohydrates, as well as in the storage and transfer of energy (ATP, creatine phosphate).

Buffer action.

Peculiarities

Phosphorus is found in all foods. Absorption is stimulated by vitamin D and citrate, and delayed by certain metals (eg aluminum), cyanide, and increased calcium intake. Phosphates excreted in urine act as a buffer.

Plasma concentration (inorganic sulfate): 0.65 mEq/L

Sulfate is formed from sulfur-containing amino acids (eg, cysteine, methionine) and is excreted through the kidneys.

In renal failure, the concentration of sulfates in plasma increases 15-20 times.

Organic acid radicals

Lactate (lactic acid).

Pyruvate (pyruvic acid).

Beta-hydroxybutyrate (beta-hydroxybutyric acid).

Acetoacetate (acetoacetic acid).

Succinate (succinic acid).

Citrate (citric acid).

Plasma concentration: 6 mEq/L (Geigy)

Lactic acid is an intermediate product in the process of carbohydrate metabolism. When oxygen levels decrease (shock, heart failure), the concentration of lactic acid increases.

Acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid (ketone bodies) appear when the amount of carbohydrates is reduced (hunger, fasting), as well as when carbohydrate utilization is impaired (diabetes) (see 3.10.3).

Protein molecules at a blood pH of 7.4 exist mainly in the form of anions (16 meq/l of plasma).

Main role

Life is connected with proteins, hence there is no life without proteins Squirrels

They are the main component of cellular and intertissue structures;

Accelerate metabolic processes as enzymes;

They form the intercellular substance of skin, bones and cartilage;

Provide muscle activity due to the contractile properties of certain proteins;

The colloid-osmotic pressure and thereby the water-holding capacity of the plasma is determined (1 g of albumin binds 16 g of water);

They are protective substances (antibodies) and hormones (for example, insulin);

Transport substances (oxygen, fatty acids, hormones, drugs, etc.);

Act as a buffer;

Participate in blood clotting.

This listing already shows the fundamental importance of proteins.

Protein balance is particularly stressed under stress (see also 3.8.2.1).

Guidelines for the Clinician

When determining the state of proteins, the following parameters are usually used:

Clinical assessment of the patient’s condition (weight loss, etc.);

Concentration of total protein and albumin in plasma;

Transferrin concentration;

Immunity status (for example, skin test, study using BCG, etc., determination of the number of lymphocytes, etc.).

Sensitive indicator of condition protein nutrition, which is the plasma albumin concentration, represents the amount of extravascular albumin reserve measured using labeled albumin. Extravascular, interstitial albumin can be considered as a protein reserve. It increases with excellent nutrition and decreases with protein deficiency without changing plasma albumin concentrations (Kudlicka et al.).

The intravascular reserve of albumin is 120 g, interstitial - from 60 to 400 g, in adults on average 200 g. When the concentration of albumin in plasma falls below the limit of normal, the interstitial reserves of albumin are significantly depleted first of all (Kudlicka, Kudlickova), as can be seen from the table . 2 and 3. In 46 patients operated on for chronic gastroduodenal ulcers, Studley established a correlation of postoperative mortality with preoperative weight loss (see Table 3).

Table 2

Mortality depending on the concentration of serum albumin on clinical material from therapeutic patients (Wuhmann, Marki)

In the magical world of chemistry, any transformation is possible. For example, you can get a safe substance that is often used in everyday life from several dangerous ones. Such an interaction of elements, which results in a homogeneous system in which all reacting substances break down into molecules, atoms and ions, is called solubility. In order to understand the mechanism of interaction of substances, it is worth paying attention to solubility table.

A table showing the degree of solubility is one of the aids for studying chemistry. Those who are learning science may not always remember how certain substances dissolve, so you should always have a table handy.

It helps in solving chemical equations that involve ionic reactions. If the result is an insoluble substance, then the reaction is possible. There are several options:

  • The substance is highly soluble;
  • Slightly soluble;
  • Practically insoluble;
  • Insoluble;
  • Hydralizes and does not exist in contact with water;
  • Doesn't exist.

Electrolytes

These are solutions or alloys that conduct electric current. Their electrical conductivity is explained by the mobility of ions. Electrolytes can be divided into 2 groups:

  1. Strong. They dissolve completely, regardless of the degree of concentration of the solution.
  2. Weak. Dissociation is partial and depends on concentration. Decreases at high concentrations.

During dissolution, electrolytes dissociate into ions with different charges: positive and negative. When exposed to current, positive ions are directed towards the cathode, while negative ions are directed towards the anode. The cathode is a positive charge, the anode is a negative charge. As a result, ion movement occurs.

Simultaneously with dissociation, the opposite process takes place - the combination of ions into molecules. Acids are electrolytes whose decomposition produces a cation - a hydrogen ion. Bases - anions - are hydroxide ions. Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water. Electrolytes that are capable of forming both cations and anions are called amphoteric.

Ions

This is a particle in which there are more protons or electrons, it will be called an anion or cation, depending on what is more: protons or electrons. As independent particles, they are found in many states of aggregation: gases, liquids, crystals and plasma. The concept and name were introduced into use by Michael Faraday in 1834. He studied the effect of electricity on solutions of acids, alkalis and salts.

Simple ions carry a nucleus and electrons. The nucleus makes up almost all of the atomic mass and is made up of protons and neutrons. The number of protons coincides with the atomic number in the periodic table and the charge of the nucleus. The ion has no definite boundaries due to the wave motion of the electrons, so it is impossible to measure their sizes.

Removing an electron from an atom requires, in turn, energy expenditure. It's called ionization energy. When an electron is added, energy is released.

Cations

These are particles that carry a positive charge. They can have different amounts of charge, for example: Ca2+ is a doubly charged cation, Na+ is a singly charged cation. They migrate to the negative cathode in an electric field.

Anions

These are elements that have a negative charge. And also has varying amounts charge values, for example, CL- is a singly charged ion, SO42- is a doubly charged ion. Such elements are found in substances that have an ionic crystal lattice, in table salt and many organic compounds.

  • Sodium. Alkali metal. Having given up one electron located at the outer energy level, the atom will turn into positive cation.
  • Chlorine. An atom of this element takes one electron to the last energy level; it will turn into a negative chloride anion.
  • Table salt. The sodium atom gives an electron to chlorine, as a result of which in the crystal lattice the sodium cation is surrounded by six chlorine anions and vice versa. As a result of this reaction, a sodium cation and a chlorine anion are formed. Due to mutual attraction, sodium chloride is formed. A strong ionic bond is formed between them. Salts are crystalline compounds with ionic bonds.
  • Acid residue. It is a negatively charged ion found in a complex inorganic compound. It is found in acid and salt formulas and usually appears after the cation. Almost all such residues have their own acid, for example, SO4 - from sulfuric acid. Acids of some residues do not exist and are written formally, but they form salts: phosphite ion.

Chemistry is a science where it is possible to create almost any miracle.

Primary sources mineral composition natural waters are:

1) gases released from the bowels of the earth during the process of degassing.

2) products of the chemical action of water with igneous rocks. These primary sources of the composition of natural waters still exist today. Currently, the role of sedimentary rocks in the chemical composition of water has increased.

The origin of anions is mainly associated with gases released during degassing of the mantles. Their composition is similar to modern volcanic gases. Along with water vapor, gaseous hydrogen compounds of chlorine (HCl), nitrogen (), sulfur (), bromine (HBr), boron (HB), carbon ( ). As a result of the phytochemical decomposition of CH 4, CO 2 is formed:

As a result of the oxidation of sulfides, the ion is formed.

The origin of cations is associated with rocks. Average chemical composition of igneous rocks (%): – 59, – 15.3, – 3.8, – 3.5, – 5.1, – 3.8, – 3.1, etc.

As a result of rock weathering (physical and chemical), groundwater is saturated with cations according to the following scheme: .

In the presence of acid anions (carbonic, hydrochloric, sulfuric), acid salts are formed: .

Microelements. Typical cations: Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Sr, Ba. Heavy metal ions: Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Fe, Ni, Co. Amphoteric complexing agents (Cr, Co, V, Mn). Biologically active trace elements: Br, I, F, B.

Microelements play important role in the biological cycle. The absence or excess of fluoride causes the diseases caries and fluorosis. Lack of iodine – thyroid disease, etc.

Chemistry of atmospheric precipitation. Currently, a new branch of hydrochemistry is developing - atmospheric chemistry. Atmospheric water (close to distilled) contains many elements.

In addition to atmospheric gases (), the air contains impurities released from the bowels of the earth components ( etc.), elements of biogenic origin ( ) and other organic compounds.

In geochemistry the study chemical composition atmospheric precipitation makes it possible to characterize the salt exchange between the atmosphere, the surface of the earth, and the oceans. Recent years In connection with atomic explosions, radioactive substances enter the atmosphere.

Aerosols. The source of the formation of the chemical composition are aerosols:

· dusty mineral particles, highly dispersed aggregates of soluble salts, tiny drops of solutions of gas impurities (). The sizes of aerosols (condensation nuclei) are different - the radius averages 20 μm (cm) and fluctuates (up to 1 μm). The quantity decreases with height. The concentration of aerosols is maximum within urban areas and minimum in the mountains. Aerosols are lifted into the air by the wind - aeolian erosion;

· salts rising from the surface of oceans and seas, ice;

products of volcanic eruptions;

· human activity.

Formation of chemical composition. rises into the atmosphere huge amount aerosols - they fall to the surface of the earth:

1. in the form of rains,

2. gravitational sedimentation.

Formation begins with the capture of aerosols by atmospheric moisture. Mineralization ranges from 5 mg/l to 100 mg/l or more. The first portions of rain are more mineralized.

Other elements in sediments:

– from hundredths to 1-3 mg/l. Radioactive substances: etc. They come mainly from testing atomic bombs.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Hydrogeology is a complex science and is divided into the following independent sections

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All topics in this section:

Hydrosphere
Plan: 1. Hydrosphere and water cycle in nature 2. Types of water in rocks 3. Properties of rocks in relation to water 4. The concept of aeration and saturation zone

Origin and dynamics of groundwater
Plan: 1. Origin of groundwater 2. Laws of groundwater filtration 3. Determination of the direction and speed of movement of groundwater 4. Basic hydrogeological

Laws of groundwater filtration. Linear filtration law
The laminar movement of groundwater obeys the linear filtration law (Darcy's law - after the name of the French scientist who established this law in 1856 for porous granular rocks


Water flow rate of trapezoidal section: Q=0.0186bh√h, l/sec, where Q is source flow rate, l/sec; b – width of the lower weir rib in cm; h – level height in

Basic hydrogeological parameters
The most important properties of rocks are filtration, which are characterized by the following parameters: filtration coefficient, permeability coefficient, water loss coefficient, water supply

Hazin's formula
K=Сdн2(0.70+0.03t), m/day, C – empirical coefficient depending on the degree of homogeneity and porosity of the soil. For clean, homogeneous sands C=1200, medium homogeneity and raft

Determination of groundwater flows
1) Flat flow and its flow rate. Flat is a flow of groundwater whose streams flow more or less parallel. An example would be the flow of groundwater driving

Types of vertical catchments
Vertical catchments can be divided into wells (pits) and boreholes. Based on the nature of the exploited aquifers, they are divided into groundwater and artesian (pressure). By character

Formula for water flow into drain
Drains are constructed to lower the groundwater level. The influx of water into a perfect horizontal drain of length B under conditions of non-pressure water according to the Dupuis equation is equal to

Chemical composition of groundwater
Plan: 1. Physical properties groundwater 2. Reaction of water 3. General mineralization of water 4. Chemical composition of water 5. Forms of expression of chemical composition

Atomic weights of ions and factors for converting milligram ions into milligram equivalents
Index Atomic weight (multiplier for conversion from mEq to mg/l) Multiplier for conversion from mg/l to mEq K+

Assessing the suitability of water for various purposes
Water supply. According to GOST 2874-73 “Drinking water” and SanPiN 2.1.4.1074-01, water must meet the following requirements: Mineralization up to 1 g/l (according to the SES rating up to 1.5 g/l); hardness 7 mg-

Absorption capacity of some clay minerals
Mineral Absorption capacity, mEq per 100 g Kaolinite Illite Montmorillanite Vermiculite Halloysite 3-15 10-40

Mineral waters
Medicinal properties mineral waters determined by: mineralization, ion-salt composition, content of biologically active components, gas and redox potential (Eh), act

Regulatory requirements for mineral industrial waters
50 g/l Halite

Groundwater zonation
Zoning of groundwater manifests itself on a global scale and belongs to the category of fundamental properties of the hydrolithosphere. It is understood as a pattern in the spatio-temporal organization

Geological activity of groundwater
Plan: 1. Karst 2. Rock fracturing 3. Suffusion I. Karst. According to the definition of D.S. Sokolova (1962) karst is a process of destruction

Operating reserves
Qex = +0.7Qex, where α is the extraction coefficient, the maximum allowable

Groundwater regime
The regime of groundwater should be understood as a change in its level, temperature, chemical composition and flow in time and space under the influence of natural and artificial

Fundamentals of Engineering Geology
Plan: 1. The concept of engineering-geological properties of rocks. 2. Methods for studying the engineering-geological properties of rocks. 3. Basic engineering-geological properties

Surely, each of the readers has heard words such as “plasma”, as well as “cations and anions”; this is a rather interesting topic for study, which has recently become quite firmly entrenched in daily life. Thus, so-called plasma displays have become widespread in everyday life, and they have firmly occupied their niche in various digital devices - from phones to televisions. But what is plasma, and what uses does it have in the modern world? Let's try to answer this question.

From an early age, in elementary school taught that there are three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gaseous. Everyday experience shows that this is indeed the case. We can take some ice, melt it, and then evaporate it - it's all pretty logical.

Important! There is a fourth basic state of matter called plasma.

However, before answering the question: what is it, let's remember the school physics course and consider the structure of the atom.

In 1911, physicist Ernst Rutherford, after much research, proposed the so-called planetary model of the atom. What is she like?

Based on the results of his experiments with alpha particles, it became known that the atom is a kind of analogue of the solar system, where previously known electrons played the role of “planets”, rotating around the atomic nucleus.

This theory has become one of the most significant discoveries in physics elementary particles. But today it is considered obsolete, and another, more advanced one, proposed by Niels Bohr, has been adopted to replace it. Even later, with the advent of a new branch of science, the so-called quantum physics, the theory of wave-particle duality was accepted.

In accordance with it, most particles are simultaneously not only particles, but also electromagnetic wave. Thus, it is impossible to indicate 100% precisely where an electron is located at a certain moment. We can only guess where he might be. Such “admissible” boundaries were subsequently called orbitals.

As you know, the electron has a negative charge, while the protons in the nucleus have a positive charge. Since the number of electrons and protons is equal, the atom has zero charge, or is electrically neutral.

Under various external influences, an atom has the opportunity to both lose electrons and gain them, while changing its charge to positive or negative, thereby becoming an ion. Thus, ions are particles with a non-zero charge - either atomic nuclei or detached electrons. Depending on their charge, positive or negative, the ions are called cations and anions, respectively.

What influences can lead to ionization of a substance? For example, this can be achieved using heat. However, it is almost impossible to do this in laboratory conditions - the equipment will not withstand such high temperatures.

Another equally interesting effect can be observed in cosmic nebulae. Such objects most often consist of gas. If there is a star nearby, then its radiation can ionize the material of the nebula, as a result of which it independently begins to emit light.

Looking at these examples, we can answer the question of what plasma is. So, by ionizing a certain volume of matter, we force the atoms to give up their electrons and acquire a positive charge. Free electrons, having a negative charge, can either remain free or join another atom, thereby changing its charge to positive. So the matter does not go anywhere, and the number of protons and electrons remains equal, leaving the plasma electrically neutral.

The role of ionization in chemistry


It is safe to say that chemistry is, in essence, applied physics. And although these sciences study completely different issues, no one has canceled the laws of interaction of matter in chemistry.

As described above, electrons have their own strictly defined places - orbitals. When atoms form a substance, they, merging into a group, also “share” their electrons with their neighbors. And although the molecule remains electrically neutral, one part of it can be an anion and the other a cation.

You don't have to look far for an example. For clarity, you can take the well-known hydrochloric acid, also known as hydrogen chloride - HCL. Hydrogen in this case will have positive charge. Chlorine in this compound is a residue and is called chloride - here it has a negative charge.

Note! It is quite easy to find out what properties certain anions have.

The solubility table will show which substance dissolves well and which immediately reacts with water.

Useful video: cations and anions

Conclusion

We found out what ionized matter is, what laws it obeys, and what processes are behind it.



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