Scientists' reaction to Mechnikov's phagocytic theory. Theories of aging by Mechnikov, Bogomolets, Marinescu. The relevance of the topic is due to the importance of getting acquainted with outstanding Russian researchers who are at the origins of medical science

Neuroses are functional disorders of higher nervous activity of psychogenic origin. The clinical picture of neuroses is very diverse and may include somatic neurotic disorders, autonomic disorders, various phobias, dysthymia, obsessions, compulsions, and emotional and mental problems.

Neuroses belong to a group of diseases that have a protracted course. This disease affects people who are characterized by constant overwork, lack of sleep, anxiety, grief, etc.

What is neurosis?

Neurosis is a set of psychogenic, functional, reversible disorders that tend to last a long time. The clinical picture of neurosis is characterized by obsessive, asthenic or hysterical manifestations, as well as a temporary weakening of physical and mental performance. This disorder is also called psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder.

Neuroses in adults are characterized by a reversible and not very severe course, which distinguishes them, in particular, from psychoses. According to statistics, up to 20% of the adult population suffers from various neurotic disorders. The percentage may vary among different social groups.

The main mechanism of development is a disorder of brain activity, which normally ensures human adaptation. As a result, both somatic and mental disorders arise.

The term neurosis was introduced into medical terminology in 1776 by a doctor from Scotland, William Cullen.

Causes

Neuroses and neurotic conditions are considered a multifactorial pathology. Leads to their occurrence large number causes that act together and trigger a large complex of pathogenetic reactions leading to pathology of the central and peripheral nervous system.

The cause of neuroses is the action of a psychotraumatic factor or a psychotraumatic situation.

In the first case, we are talking about a short-term but strong negative impact on a person, for example, the death of a loved one.
In the second case, we talk about long-term, chronic influence of a negative factor, for example, family conflict situation. Speaking about the causes of neurosis, it is psychotraumatic situations and, above all, family conflicts that are of great importance.

Today there are:

psychological factors in the development of neuroses, which are understood as the characteristics and conditions of personality development, as well as upbringing, the level of aspirations and relationships with society;
biological factors, which are understood as functional insufficiency of certain neurophysiological as well as neurotransmitter systems, making patients susceptible to psychogenic influences

Equally often, all categories of patients, regardless of their place of residence, experience psychoneurosis due to such tragic events as:

death or loss of a loved one;
serious illness in loved ones or in the patient himself;
divorce or separation from a loved one;
dismissal from work, bankruptcy, business collapse, and so on.

It is not entirely correct to talk about heredity in this situation. The development of neurosis is influenced by the environment in which a person grew up and was brought up. A child, looking at parents prone to hysteria, adopts their behavior and exposes his own nervous system injuries.

According to the American Psychiatric Association frequency of occurrence of neuroses in men the incidence ranges from 5 to 80 cases per 1000 population, while in women it ranges from 4 to 160.

A variety of neuroses

Neuroses are a group of diseases that arise in humans due to exposure to mental trauma. As a rule, they are accompanied by a deterioration in a person’s well-being, mood swings and manifestations of somato-vegetative manifestations.

Neurasthenia

(nervous weakness or fatigue syndrome) is the most common form of neuroses. Occurs during prolonged nervous overstrain, chronic stress and other similar conditions that cause fatigue and “breakdown” of the protective mechanisms of the nervous system.

Neurasthenia is characterized by the following symptoms:

increased irritability;
high excitability;
rapid fatigue;
loss of the ability to self-control and self-control;
tearfulness and touchiness;
absent-mindedness, inability to concentrate;
decreased ability to endure prolonged mental stress;
loss of usual physical endurance;
severe sleep disturbances;
loss of appetite;
apathy and indifference to what is happening.

Hysterical neurosis

Vegetative manifestations of hysteria manifest themselves in the form of spasms, persistent nausea, vomiting, and fainting. Characteristic movement disorders are trembling, tremor in the limbs, blepharospasm. Sensory disorders are expressed by sensory disturbances in various parts of the body, pain, and hysterical deafness and blindness may develop.

Patients seek attention relatives and doctors to their condition, they have extremely unstable emotions, their mood changes sharply, they easily move from sobbing to wild laughter.

There are a specific type of patients with a tendency to hysterical neurosis:

Impressionable and sensitive;
Self-hypnosis and suggestibility;
With mood instability;
With a tendency to attract external attention.

Hysterical neurosis must be distinguished from somatic and mental illnesses. Similar symptoms occur with tumors of the central nervous system, endocrinopathy, and encephalopathy due to trauma.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A disease characterized by the occurrence of obsessive ideas and thoughts. A person is overcome by fears that he cannot get rid of. In such a state, the patient often exhibits phobias ( this form also called phobic neurosis).

Symptoms of neurosis of this form manifest themselves as follows: a person feels fear, which manifests itself with repeated unpleasant incidents.

For example, if a patient faints on the street, then in the same place the next time he will be haunted by obsessive fear. Over time, a person develops a fear of death, incurable diseases, and dangerous infections.

Depressive form

Depressive neurosis develops against the background of prolonged psychogenic or neurotic depression. The disorder is characterized by deterioration in sleep quality, loss of the ability to rejoice, and chronic low mood. The disease is accompanied by:

heart rhythm disturbances,
dizziness,
tearfulness,
increased sensitivity,
stomach problems,
intestines,
sexual dysfunction.

Symptoms of neurosis in adults

Neurosis is characterized by instability of mood and impulsive actions. Mood swings affect all areas of the patient’s life. It affects interpersonal relationships, goal setting, and self-esteem.

Patients experience memory impairment, low concentration, and high fatigue. A person gets tired not only from work, but also from his favorite activities. Intellectual activity becomes difficult. Due to absent-mindedness, the patient can make many mistakes, which causes new problems at work and at home.

Among the main signs of neurosis are:

causeless emotional stress;
increased fatigue;
insomnia or constant desire to sleep;
isolation and obsession;
lack of appetite or overeating;
weakening of memory;
headache (long lasting and sudden onset);
dizziness and fainting;
darkening of the eyes;
disorientation;
pain in the heart, abdomen, muscles and joints;
hand trembling;
frequent urination;
increased sweating (due to fear and nervousness);
decreased potency;
high or low self-esteem;
uncertainty and inconsistency;
incorrect prioritization.

People suffering from neuroses often experience:

mood instability;
a feeling of self-doubt and the correctness of the actions taken;
overly expressed emotional reaction to minor stress (aggression, despair, etc.);
increased sensitivity and vulnerability;
tearfulness and irritability;
suspiciousness and exaggerated self-criticism;
frequent manifestation of unreasonable anxiety and fear;
inconsistency of desires and changes in the value system;
excessive fixation on the problem;
increased mental fatigue;
decreased ability to remember and concentrate;
high degree of sensitivity to sound and light stimuli, reaction to minor temperature changes;
sleep disorders.

Signs of neurosis in women and men

Signs of neurosis in the fair sex have their own characteristics that are worth mentioning. First of all, women are characterized by asthenic neurosis (neurasthenia), which is caused by irritability, loss of mental and physical ability, and also leads to problems in sexual life.

The following types are typical for men:

Depressive - the symptoms of this type of neurosis are more common in men; the reasons for its appearance are the inability to realize oneself at work, the inability to adapt to sudden changes in life, both personal and social.
Male neurasthenia. It usually occurs against the background of overstrain, both physical and nervous, and most often it affects workaholics.

Signs of menopausal neurosis, which develops in both men and women, are increased emotional sensitivity and irritability, decreased stamina, sleep disturbances, and general problems with the functioning of internal organs, beginning between the ages of 45 and 55 years.

Stages

Neuroses are diseases that are fundamentally reversible, functional, without organic damage to the brain. But they often take a protracted course. This is connected not so much with the traumatic situation itself, but with the characteristics of a person’s character, his attitude to this situation, the level of adaptive capabilities of the body and the psychological defense system.

Neuroses are divided into 3 stages, each of which has its own symptoms:

The initial stage is characterized by increased excitability and irritability;
The intermediate stage (hypersthenic) is characterized by increased nerve impulses from the peripheral nervous system;
The final stage (hyposthenic) is manifested by decreased mood, drowsiness, lethargy and apathy due to the strong severity of inhibition processes in the nervous system.

A longer course of a neurotic disorder, changes in behavioral reactions and the emergence of an assessment of one’s illness indicate the development of a neurotic state, i.e., neurosis itself. An uncontrollable neurotic state for 6 months - 2 years leads to the formation of neurotic personality development.

Diagnostics

So what kind of doctor will help cure neurosis? This is done by either a psychologist or psychotherapist. Accordingly, the main treatment tool is psychotherapy (and hypnotherapy), most often complex.

The patient needs to learn look at the world objectively around him, to realize his inadequacy in some matters.

Diagnosing neurosis is not an easy task, which only an experienced specialist can do. As mentioned above, the symptoms of neurosis manifest themselves differently in both women and men. It is also necessary to take into account that each person has his own character, his own personality traits, which can be confused with signs of other disorders. That is why only a doctor should make a diagnosis.

The disease is diagnosed using a color technique:

All colors take part in the technique, and a neurosis-like syndrome manifests itself when choosing and repeating purple, gray, black and brown colors.
Hysterical neurosis is characterized by the choice of only two colors: red and purple, which 99% indicates the patient’s low self-esteem.

To identify signs of a psychopathic nature, a special test is carried out - it allows you to identify the presence of chronic fatigue, anxiety, indecisiveness, and lack of self-confidence. People with neuroses rarely set long-term goals for themselves, do not believe in success, they often have complexes about their own appearance, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people.

Treatment of neuroses

There are many theories and methods of treating neuroses in adults. Therapy takes place in two main directions - pharmacological and psychotherapeutic. The use of pharmacological therapy is carried out only in extremely severe forms of the disease. In many cases, qualified psychotherapy is sufficient.

In the absence of somatic pathologies, patients lifestyle changes are definitely recommended, normalize the work and rest schedule, sleep at least 7-8 hours a day, eat right, give up bad habits, spend more time in the fresh air and avoid nervous overload.

Medicines

Unfortunately, very few people suffering from neuroses are ready to work on themselves and change something. Therefore, medications are widely used. They do not solve problems, but are intended only to relieve the severity of the emotional reaction to a traumatic situation. After them it just becomes easier on the soul - for a while. Maybe then it’s worth looking at the conflict (within yourself, with others or with life) from a different angle and finally resolving it.

With the help of psychotropic drugs, tension, tremors, etc. are eliminated. Their appointment is permissible only for a short period of time.

For neuroses, the following groups of drugs are usually used:

tranquilizers – alprazolam, phenazepam.
antidepressants – fluoxetine, sertraline.
sleeping pills – zopiclone, zolpidem.

Psychotherapy for neuroses

Currently, the main methods of treating all types of neuroses are psychotherapeutic techniques and hypnotherapy. During psychotherapy sessions, a person gets the opportunity to build a complete picture of his personality, to establish cause-and-effect relationships that gave impetus to the emergence of neurotic reactions.

Treatment methods for neuroses include color therapy. The right color for the brain is beneficial, just like vitamins are for the body.

Adviсe:

To extinguish anger and irritation, avoid the color red.
When you are in a bad mood, eliminate black and dark blue tones from your wardrobe and surround yourself with light and warm colors.
To relieve tension, look at blue, greenish tones. Replace the wallpaper at home, choose the appropriate decor.

Folk remedies

Before using any folk remedies In case of neurosis, we recommend consulting a doctor.

For restless sleep, general weakness, those suffering from neurasthenia should pour a teaspoon of verbena herb with a glass of boiling water, then leave for an hour, take small sips throughout the day.
Tea with lemon balm - mix 10 g of tea leaves and herbal leaves, pour 1 liter of boiling water, drink tea in the evening and before bed;
Mint. Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1 tbsp. a spoonful of mint. Let it brew for 40 minutes and strain. Drink a cup of warm decoction in the morning on an empty stomach and in the evening before bed.
Bath with valerian. Take 60 grams of root and boil for 15 minutes, leave to brew for 1 hour, strain and pour into a bathtub with hot water. Take 15 minutes.

Forecast

The prognosis of neurosis depends on its type, stage of development and duration of course, timeliness and adequacy of the psychological and medicinal assistance provided. In most cases, timely initiation of therapy leads, if not to cure, then to a significant improvement in the patient’s condition.

The long-term existence of neurosis is dangerous due to irreversible personality changes and the risk of suicide.

Prevention

Despite the fact that neurosis is treatable, it is still better to prevent than to treat.

Prevention methods for adults:

The best prevention in this case would be to normalize your emotional background as much as possible.
Try to eliminate irritating factors or change your attitude towards them.
Avoid overload at work, normalize your work and rest schedule.
It is very important to give yourself proper rest, eat right, sleep at least 7-8 hours a day, take daily walks, and play sports.

The issue of protecting the body from unfavorable conditions has always interested humans, so it is difficult to establish when immunology first appeared. It is known that already in the first millennium BC. In China, inoculations of the contents of smallpox papules were used to instill immunity in healthy people. In the 11th century, Avicenna mentioned acquired immunity, and based on his theory, the Italian author Girolamo Fracastoro wrote a large-scale treatise “Contagion” (1546).

Development of the theory of immunity

At the end of the 19th century, thanks to the work of Louis Pasteur, a breakthrough occurred in the development of immunology. In 1881, he succeeded in vaccinating animals against anthrax, but his theory lacked acceptable scientific basis. At the same time, the German Emil von Berning proved the formation of antitoxins in people who had suffered from tetanus or diphtheria, as well as the effectiveness of blood transfusions from such people for the formation of immunity in healthy people. Berning also investigated the mechanisms of serum therapy, and his works laid the foundation for the study of the theory of humoral immunity.

However, neither Pasteur nor Berning were able to offer a sufficiently substantiated theory describing the mechanisms of immunity. The foundations of the modern scientific approach to the study of immunity were laid by the Russian scientist Ilya Mechnikov, who laid the foundation for the phagocytic theory of immunity. For his research into immunity in infectious diseases in 1908, Mechnikov was awarded the Nobel Prize, albeit jointly with P. Ehrlich (author of the humoral theory of immunity).

Cellular immunology Mechnikov

Mechnikov proved the existence in the body of special amoeboid cells capable of absorbing pathogenic microorganisms. Observing the moving cells of a starfish under a microscope, Ilya Ilyich discovered that they not only participate in the digestion process, but also perform protective functions in the body, enveloping and absorbing foreign particles. Mechnikov gave them the name “phagocytes”, and the process itself was called “phagocytosis”.

In his theory, the scientist described three main properties of phagocyte cells:

The ability to protect the body from infections, as well as cleanse it of toxins (including breakdown products of healthy tissues).
The ability of phagocytes to produce enzymes and biologically active substances.
The presence of antigens on the membrane of phagocyte cells.

distinguished two groups of phagocytes - granular blood cells (microphages) and mobile leukocytes (macrophages).

Due to the fact that immunocompetent cells are able to remember the antigen presented by macrophages, the body develops immunity against foreign elements certain type. Therefore, when the infection is re-infected, there is an appropriate immune response that prevents the development of pathogenic processes.

Main tasks of immunology of the 21st century

Despite a significant breakthrough in studies of the structure and interaction of body cells, the phagocytic theory proposed by Mechnikov remains the main basis of modern immunology.

In 1937, work began on the electrophoresis of blood proteins, which laid the foundation for the study of immunoglobulins; the main classes of antibodies (immunoglobulins) capable of identifying and neutralizing foreign elements were soon discovered. All these studies only develop the theory proposed by Mechnikov, exploring its mechanisms at a more detailed level.

The main challenges to which the phagocytic theory must find an answer are issues of immunodeficiency, treatment of cancer, development of new vaccines and antiallergens.

Promising directions are the study of the mechanisms of response of infectious microorganisms to means of combating them. What their modifications trigger, how this process occurs at the biochemical level, how the mechanisms of immunity are affected by the mental and emotional state and other additional factors - these and other questions remain poorly understood and await their discoverers.

Immunity is a protective reaction of the body, its ability to resist the action of damaging agents. It is thanks to the presence of immunity that the body copes with the disease and recovers. In addition, thanks to immunity, a person gets sick from some infectious diseases only once in his life. And after that he becomes immune to them, even with direct contact with patients. Such diseases include, for example, measles and rubella.

The immune system is able to recognize and block any foreign factor in the body. The human immune system consists of various parts: humoral, cellular, phagocytic, interferon and others. A deficiency or excess of one of them can lead to disruption of the correct reaction of our defense system.

The immune system (immunity) is the natural defense mechanism of our body. Immunity maintains the constancy of the internal environment, eliminates foreign influences infectious agents, chemicals, abnormal cells, etc.

The immune system is responsible for two important processes in the body:

1) replacement of spent or damaged, aged cells of various organs of our body;

2) protecting the body from the penetration of various types of infections - viruses, bacteria, fungi.

When an infection invades the human body, the body’s defense systems come into play, the task of which is to ensure the integrity and functionality of all organs and systems. Macrophages, phagocytes, lymphocytes are cells of the immune system, immunoglobulins are proteins that are produced by cells of the immune system and also fight foreign particles.

There are two types of immunity:

1. Specific immunity is acquired after infection (for example, after influenza, measles, rubella) or vaccination. It is individual in nature and is formed throughout a person’s life as a result of contact of his immune system with various microbes and antigens. Specific immunity preserves the memory of the infection and prevents its recurrence. Sometimes specific immunity can last a lifetime, sometimes for several weeks, months or years;

2. Nonspecific (innate) immunity - the innate ability to destroy everything alien to the body. This is the ability of cells, formed in intrauterine life, to synthesize membrane receptors for antigens of other organisms, other tissues and some microorganisms, as well as to synthesize the corresponding antibodies and release them into body fluids.

Phagocytic theory of immunity I.I. Mechnikov

The outstanding achievement of I.I. Mechnikov became his phagocytic theory of immunity, the path to which was long and difficult, accompanied by “wars” with opponents of this approach. It began in Messina (Italy), where a scientist observed starfish larvae and sea fleas. The pathologist noticed how the wandering cells (called phagocytes) of these creatures surround and absorb foreign bodies, and at the same time destroy other tissues that the body does not need.

Mechnikov came to the idea of phagocytes while studying intracellular digestion in motile cells connective tissue invertebrates, when cells capture solid food particles and gradually digest them. In higher animals, typical phagocytes are white blood cells - leukocytes.

In this struggle between the phagocytes of the body and microbes arriving from outside, and in the inflammation accompanying this struggle, Mechnikov saw the essence of any disease.

The biologist's experiments were brilliant in their simplicity. Artificially introducing larvae into the body foreign bodies(for example, a rose thorn), the scientist demonstrated their capture, isolation or destruction by phagocytes. The rather transparent arguments of the Russian scientist, although they excited the scientific community, also turned it against this interpretation of the body’s disease.

Many biologists, including R. Koch, G. Buchner, E. Behring, R. Pfeiffer, were advocates of the humoral theory of immunity that arose at the same time. This theory argued that foreign bodies are destroyed not by leukocytes, but by other blood substances - antibodies and antitoxins. As it turned out, this approach is legitimate and consistent with the phagocytic theory.

Studying phagocytes for decades, Mechnikov at the same time studied cholera, typhus, syphilis, plague, tuberculosis, tetanus, and other infectious diseases and their causative agents. It is the study of immunity in infectious diseases Experts considered humans and animals to be the main merit of the Russian scientist. Moreover, the results of his research became the foundation of a new branch of biology and medicine - comparative pathology, and the issues of bacteriology and epidemiology solved by Mechnikov’s school became the basis modern methods combating infectious diseases.

The result of many years of research into immunity was the classic work “Immunity in Infectious Diseases” (1901).

In 1908 I. I. Mechnikov was awarded Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine. Thus, the Russian scientist laid the foundation for modern research in immunology and had a profound influence on the entire course of its development.