Active and passive vocabulary. The concept of active and passive composition of the dictionary. Outdated words; difference between archaisms and historicisms

The Russian language dictionary is constantly changing and improving in the process of its historical development. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: an active dictionary and a passive dictionary.
The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to all speakers of a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.
The passive stock of words includes those that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not in everyday use.
Passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

More on topic 16. The concept of passive and active vocabulary:

Part 1. Structural and communicative properties of language. Speech culture. Speech communication
Reflection in the vocabulary of processes occurring in society: replenishment of the vocabulary with words that reflect new realities; de-actualization of words and meanings reflecting previous realities; changes in the evaluative properties of words. Deideologization of vocabulary.

Subject: The concept of active and passive vocabulary ki.

Goal: to introduce students to active and passive vocabulary, to obsolete words and the reasons for their decline from active use.

Lesson progress

Epigraph:

“...Russian language, like any otherhealthy and strong body,all in motion, in the dynamics of continuous growth. Some of his words die out, others are born.”

K. I. Chukovsky.

1. Checking homework.

The student answers on the topic “Original and borrowed words.” The rest complement it and give their own examples from homework.

2. Working on new material.
A message about the purpose of the lesson.

The vocabulary of a language consists of active vocabulary, i.e. words that are currently used by all speakers, and passive vocabulary - words that people either stop or are just beginning to use.

Passive vocabulary is divided into two groups: obsolete and new words.

The division of the dictionary into active and passive vocabulary is justified only in a strictly defined historical time: each era has its own active and passive vocabulary.

In this lesson we will learn about outdated words. You have already met them when studying works of art.

Observation of linguistic facts.

Write down words that are not currently used. Why did these words fall out of use? What are the meanings of these words?

What do you mean, grandfather, footman? One of the kids asked.

What is a chamberlain? The older pioneer asked.

The master's lackey was a servant,

And the chamberlain is a nobleman,

But that one, guys, and the other one,

Much of a muchness.

The only difference they have is that

That the first one was in livery,

The second is in a gold uniform,

With a sword, with the Annen cross,

With Vladimir around his neck.

(S. Ya. Marshak)

For information: chamberlain - “a title received by nobles for service at the royal court”, a person bearing this title; nobleman - “a noble and wealthy nobleman who performs some service at the royal court; the Annen cross and Vladimir on the neck are royal orders.

Is the word “lackey” used in our speech in a literal or figurative sense? Prove it.

For information: lackey-1. Same as servant (inI meaning).

2. transfer About a servile henchman, a sycophant (contemptuous).

INDEPENDENT WORK: Write down words that are not used in our speech.

An inspired magician comes towards him from the dark forest...

The Magi are not afraid of powerful rulers, And they do not need a princely gift. Their prophetic language is truthful and free and friendly with the will of heaven. The coming years lurk in the darkness.

But I see your lot on your bright brow...

3. Prince Igor and Olga are sitting on a hill,
The squad is feasting on the shore.

Is it possible to find synonyms from the modern Russian language for the written words?

What are the reasons why words become obsolete?

The teacher summarizes and concludes:

Words disappear for various reasons: 1) they are forgotten as soon as objects and phenomena from life disappear (examples from a poem by S. Ya. / Marshak) - historicisms; 2) words are forgotten if a new word appears for the name of the same object, attribute, action - archaisms (examples from a poem by A. S. Pushkin); 3) individual meanings of polysemantic words become obsolete.

Historicisms in modern Russian do not have synonyms, but archaisms do. .

In excerpts from D. Kedrin’s poem “Horse”, find historicisms and archaisms. Determine what role obsolete vocabulary plays in the text.

Not looking for self-interest in the boyars,

Tell me how you served yesterday,

Zane are needed in the state

City masters.

Ivan died, sent to the chopping block

Everyone with whom I forgot to settle accounts of old,

When will the barms of Monomakh

The humble Tsar Feodor accepted,

Was the bailiffs Horse by the gate

Brought to the Kremlin: having filled up the ditches,

The Tsar decided to build the White City -

Ring of walls around Moscow

There were silent bells in the Kremlin,

The king did not remove his hands from the cross,

Ovamo and Semo stood

Greybeard clerks.

3. Work according to the textbook.
Exercise No. 160 (written)

For what purpose are obsolete words used in works of art?

4. Training exercises in order to secure the material.

1) Observation of the role of obsolete words in sentences. Write down suggestions find in they are synonyms. Explain the difference in their meanings.

The coming years lurk in the darkness. (P.)

With a sigh, the knight looks around him with sad eyes. (P.).

Peter emerges from the tent, surrounded by a crowd of favorites. His eyes are shining. (P.)

3. The priest became thoughtful and began to scratch his forehead. (II.)

Oleg grinned; however, his forehead and gaze were darkened by thoughts. (P.)

4. Leyla takes her tambourine, hitting it with her fingers, Lezgin
he dances and sings. (L.).

Squinting his eyes at the curly mustache, the hussar twirled his curls on his finger with a majestic smile. (P.)

2) Working with synonyms.

Write down the synonyms WIZARD, WIZARD, SORCERER, SORCERER. Which ones are outdated? Are they used in their literal meaning in modern Russian? Come up with a sentence using any of these words and write it down in your notebook.

3) In the following passages, find synonyms for the word FIGHT, continue the synonymous series with your synonyms. Write down synonyms for each noun
those are a verb of the same root. Which nouns and verbs are outdated and rarely used now?

1. Tell me, uncle, it’s not for nothing
Moscow, burned by fire,
Given to the Frenchman?

After all, there were battles?..

2. And here on the field of a terrible battle
The shadow of the night fell. (M Yu. Lermontov)

Is the word Dvornya the same root? janitor, butler, mongrel, noblemen, courtyard servants? Indicate words that have fallen out of active use and the reasons for this.

Find outdated words in A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” and determine their meanings. Where possible, select synonyms. Which ones are borrowed? Prove your opinion.

5. Lesson summary.

What new did you learn in class today?

What are the reasons for the obsolescence of words in the Russian language?

What groups are obsolete words divided into?

For what purpose are obsolete words used in fiction?

6. Homework.

Find in A. S. Pushkin’s poem “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg” words that characterize the military structure of Ancient Russia (names of weapons, military clothing, military personnel, etc.). Write them down in your dictionaries and determine their meaning.

Find outdated words. Find out the meanings of unfamiliar words in an explanatory dictionary. What style are these words typical for? Where possible, select synonyms for them from the modern Russian language.

Make up sentences with the words highlighted.

Doctor, monastery, coachman, fisherman, youth, kiss, face, squad, prince, carriage, abuse, cheeks, mouth, PIIT, BATTLE, livery, hussar, page.

Plan

Introduction

1. The concept of active and passive language reserve

2. Russian vocabulary from the point of view of active and passive stock

2.1 Active dictionary

2.2 Passive dictionary

Conclusion

References

Introduction

active passive vocabulary speech

1. The concept of active and passive language reserve

The statement that obsolete vocabulary belongs to the passive stock of the language is generally accepted. Many people have written about this. As far as we know, no one argued with this. However, as an analysis of lexicographic theory and practice shows, there are significant “distortions” in the understanding of the relationship between the concepts of “obsolete vocabulary” and “passive vocabulary of a language” (or, in other words, “the periphery of a language”). But before we talk about them, let us recall what content is traditionally put by linguists into the concept of “passive stock of language”, “periphery of language” and “outdated vocabulary”.

As is known, the concept of active and passive language stock was introduced into lexicographic theory and practice by L.V. Shcherba (in the work "An Experience in the General Theory of Lexicography"). Shcherba classified the passive vocabulary as words that have become less common and the range of use of which has narrowed. In modern linguistics, there are several points of view on the passive vocabulary of a language. In one case, linguists include in the passive dictionary of a language “a part of the vocabulary of the language, consisting of lexical units, the use of which is limited by the characteristics of the phenomena they signify (names of rare realities, historicisms, terms, proper names) or lexical units known only to a part of native speakers (archaisms , neologisms) used only in certain functional varieties of language (book, colloquial and other stylistically colored vocabulary)." This understanding of passive vocabulary is reflected in the “Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary” and is shared by B.P. Barannikova and A.A. Reformatsky, D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova and other researchers. Proponents of another point of view argue that a passive dictionary is “a part of the vocabulary of a language, understandable to all speakers of a given language, but little used in live everyday communication; a passive dictionary consists of obsolete or obsolete words, but which have not fallen out of the vocabulary of the language, many neologisms, which have not yet entered into common usage." This understanding of the passive vocabulary of a language is reflected in the Russian Language encyclopedia and is supported by N.M. Shansky, M.I. Fomina, F.P. Sorokoletov and others. This point of view on the passive dictionary is more “narrow”, because includes only part of the outdated (obsolete) vocabulary and part of neologisms. Both are marked by the presence of a temporary component in the characteristic, low frequency of use and, as a consequence, a peripheral position in the dictionary. Another opinion on this matter is based on the distinction between the concepts of language and speech: “the concepts of “active” and “passive” dictionary refer primarily not to language, but to speech, i.e., to the linguistic activity of individual individuals, therefore active and passive dictionaries different people belonging to different social groups, professions, and different localities may not coincide.” N.M. Shansky warns that the passive vocabulary of a language should not be confused with the passive vocabulary of a particular native speaker, which depends on his profession, education, daily work, etc. ". As Z.F. Belyanskaya notes, "the unclear delimitation of the phenomena of language and speech affected the attribution of L.A. Bulakhovsky to the passive vocabulary of the language of words of special use, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms and many borrowings, and A.A. Reformed also expressive expressions." Some scientists abandoned the term "passive dictionary." Thus, P.Ya. Chernykh believes that "it would be more correct to talk about different degrees of activity of words" and "the periphery of the active dictionary", i.e. about words , “which speakers use in conversations about objects of thought that are foreign and alien to their everyday life.” P.N. Denisov, describing the lexical system in terms of field structure, includes obsolete vocabulary in the peripheral zone. Traditionally, the term obsolete vocabulary is used as a generalizing concept in relation to the terms historicism and archaism. In this case, historicisms are understood as obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they called. Archaisms include lexemes that name existing realities, but have been displaced from use by synonymous units for linguistic or extralinguistic reasons. , historicisms have no parallels in modern language, archaisms, on the contrary, have synonyms in modern language. Linguists do not have a common opinion on whether historicisms should be considered facts of the modern language located on its periphery, or facts that have gone beyond the boundaries of the language and, therefore, fallen out of its lexical system.

2. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock

Vocabulary composition is the most mobile language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political life of the people. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their sound appearance and meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: an active dictionary and a passive dictionary. The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to speakers of a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not used every day. Thus, passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts that they denoted are clearly obsolete: boyar, clerk, veche, streltsy, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms; they are more or less known and understandable to native speakers, but are not actively used by them. In modern language, they are addressed only when it is necessary to name objects or phenomena that have fallen out of use, for example, in special scientific-historical literature, as well as in the language of works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era. If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it are replaced in the process of language development by new ones, more acceptable for one reason or another for the new generation of language speakers, then the old names also become category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: ponezhe - therefore, vezhdy - eyelids, guest - merchant, merchant (mostly foreign), guest - trade, etc. Some of the words of this type are practically beyond the boundaries of even the passively existing lexical reserves of the modern literary language. For example: thief - thief, robber; stry - paternal uncle, stryinya - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stirrup - down; sling - 1) roof and 2) vault of heaven; vezha - 1) tent, tent, 2) tower; fat - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in modern language as part of phraseological units: to get into a mess, where a mess is a spinning rope machine; you can’t see where zga (stga) is a road, path; hit with the forehead, where the forehead is the forehead; go crazy with fat, where fat is wealth; protect it like the apple of your eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.

11 12 13 ..

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its active and passive stock
16.
The concept of passive and active vocabulary

17.
Outdated words

One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that meant: boyar, veche, streltsy, guardsman, vowel (member of the city duma), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms.
Another group of obsolete words consists of archaisms, i.e. words that, in the process of language development, were replaced by synonyms, which are other names for the same concept. This group includes, for example, the words barber - hairdresser; this - this; more - because; gostba - trade; eyelids - eyelids; piit - poet; komon - horse; Lanita - cheeks; instigate - incite; bed - bed, etc.
Both of these outdated words are used in the language of fiction as a means of recreating a certain historical era (for example, in the novels “Razin Stepan” by A. Chapygin, “Peter I” by A.N. Tolstoy, “Emelyan Pugachev” by V.Ya. Shishkov, “Ivan the Terrible” by V. Kostylev, “Loyal Sons of Russia” by L. Nikulin, “I came to give you freedom” by V. Shukshin, “Memory” by V. Chivilikhin and many others). They can be a means of giving speech a comic or ironic tone. Archaisms are part of the traditional poetic sublime vocabulary (for example, the words: breg, cheeks, youth, this, eyes, this, etc.). The use of historicisms and archaisms in special scientific-historical literature is already devoid of a special stylistic specification, since it allows lexically to accurately characterize the era being described.

18.
Neologisms

New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). A neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, or concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used and accessible to the public, it ceases to be a neologism. Such a path has been followed, for example, by the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, Tselinnik, Lunnik, cosmonaut and many others (see § 33). Over time, many of these words also become obsolete and become passive in the language.
Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, even in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism - humanity, idea, communism - communist, social, equality, socialism - socialist, etc.), in modern language they are part of the active vocabulary stock.
And some words, having arisen relatively recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, nepman, komchvanstvo, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar, etc.), have managed to become obsolete.
In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author are highlighted. Some of them entered the literary language, for example: drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (by Lomonosov); industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching (in Karamzin); fade away (in Dostoevsky), etc. Others remain part of the so-called occasional authorial formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example: mandolin, unsmile, sickle, hammer, chamberlenye and many others by Mayakovsky; stormed, made a mess with B. Pasternak; mokhnatinki, Ant Country and Muravskaya Country by A. Tvardovsky; to magic, cellophaneized, etc. from A. Voznesensky; side-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexible and others by E. Yevtushenko. A.I. has a lot of non-usual words. Solzhenitsyn, especially among the adverbs: he turned around ready, rushed forward, grinned broadly.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to all speakers of a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

The passive stock of words includes those that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not in everyday use.

Passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

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From the publisher
This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanities.

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The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of language
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Polysemy of the word
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Lexical synonyms, their types and role in the language
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Lexical antonyms, their types and role in language
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Borrowed words in Russian
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Borrowings from related Slavic languages
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Vocabulary of socially restricted use
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Outdated words
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Neologisms
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Colloquial phraseological units and phraseological units
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Word-formation dictionaries
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Reverse dictionaries
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Dictionaries of abbreviations
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Frequency dictionaries
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Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms
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Phraseological dictionaries
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Dictionaries of foreign words
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Spelling dictionaries
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Spelling dictionaries
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Phonetic units of the Russian language
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Syllable concept
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Accent
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Sound laws in the field of consonants
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Long and double consonants
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Sound law in the field of vowels
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Alternation of sounds
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The concept of phonetic transcription
Recording oral speech in full accordance with its sound cannot be done using ordinary orthographic writing. In orthographic writing there is no complete correspondence between sounds and letters

Phonetic transcription of text
Another d"ên"/v"es"t" Λ pΛzha r"y/raz"n"ies"las pufs"ie

The concept of phoneme
Speech sounds, without having their own meaning, are a means of distinguishing words. The study of the distinctive ability of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called

Sound changes in modern Russian literary language
The quality of the phonetic position (strong and weak positions) and the associated distinctive function of the phoneme (strong and weak phonemes) are determined by the nature of positional changes inherent in phonetic

The concept of strong and weak phonemes
The degree of different functions of phonemes is expressed in the concepts of a strong phoneme and a weak phoneme. Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the greatest number of sounds differs

The concept of phoneme series
The exchange of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms a phoneme series. Thus, vowel phonemes identical in place in the morpheme kos- form a phoneme series<о> - <

System of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian literary language
Composition of consonant phonemes. In position before vowel phonemes<а>, <о>, <у>, <и>consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiated as much as possible.

The concept of orthoepy
Orthoepy (Greek orthos - straight, correct and epos - speech) is a set of rules of oral speech that establish uniform literary pronunciation. Orthoepic norms cover the

Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development
The orthoepy of the modern Russian literary language is a historically established system, which, along with new features, largely preserves old, traditional features, reflections

Pronunciation of vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable
The literary pronunciation of unstressed vowels is based on the phonetic law of the modern Russian literary language - vowel reduction. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are shortened over time.

Pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first
In the second and third pre-stressed syllables, vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of vowel reduction in these syllables is practically the same. Sounds pronounced by n

Pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables
The pronunciation of vowels in overstressed syllables is basically the same as the pronunciation of vowels in all prestressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in overstressed syllables are not of good quality.

Pronunciation of vowels at the beginning of a word
1. In place of the letters a, o at the beginning of the word (if the syllable is not stressed), the sound [Λ] is pronounced. For example: agent, sedge, shell, founder - [Λgent], [Λsok], [Λblochk], [Λs

Transition(s) to(s)
At the place of the letter and at the beginning of the word, when the pronunciation of this word merges with the previous one, which ends with a hard consonant, as well as at the place of the union and in certain conditions, a voice is pronounced

Pronunciation of combinations of unstressed vowels
Combinations of unstressed vowel sounds are formed during the continuous pronunciation of a function word and the subsequent significant one, as well as at the junction of morphemes. Literary pronunciation does not allow contraction

Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream, the consonant sounds of the modern Russian literary language, paired in terms of voicedness and voicelessness, change in their quality depending on their position in the word. Vary

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants paired in hardness-softness has a phonemic meaning, since in the Russian language hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. would - would

Pronunciation of consonant combinations
With regard to literary pronunciation, certain combinations of consonants are distinguished, strictly defined in their composition. Such combinations occur at morphological junctions of words (final consonant

Unpronounceable consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound.

Pronunciation of consonant sounds indicated by two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double consonants

Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced and sonorant consonants is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant: mountain, where, hail; before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λж"

Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative singular case. Part of the masculine adjectives -y, -y is pronounced according to the spelling: [good

Features of pronunciation of foreign words
Many words of foreign origin have been firmly adopted by the Russian literary language, entered the common language and are pronounced in accordance with existing spelling norms. Less significant

Concept of graphics
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of graphic characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing

Russian alphabet and letter names
Aa a Bb be Vv ve Gg ge Dd de Her e Yoyo e Zh zhe Zz ze

The relationship between Russian phonetics and graphics
Modern Russian graphics include an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was a literary

Features of Russian graphics
Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have developed historically and represent a specific graphic system. Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet in which

The concept of spelling
As a result of long-term development, Russian writing, gradually adapting to the linguistic system, has developed into a certain system, functioning in the form of graphics and spelling, which are closely related

Morphological nature of Russian spelling
Modern Russian orthography conveys our speech by denoting its sound side with letters, and in this sense our orthography is phonetic. However, in Russian writing the speech unit denoted by unit

Phonetic spellings
Along with the morphological principle, which occupies a leading position in Russian spelling, so-called phonetic spellings are used, representing deviations from the morphological principle

Traditional and differentiating spellings
Violations of the morphological principle of spelling also include traditional and differentiating spellings. Traditional spellings, otherwise historical, are relics of the past, tr

Brief information from the history of Russian graphics and spelling
Modern Russian graphics represent slightly modified graphics of the Old Church Slavonic language, the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Old Slavonic graphics were compiled in the 9th century. brothers in Bulgaria

Composition of the word
Words of the Russian language, from the point of view of morphological structure, are divided into words that have inflectional forms and those that do not have inflectional forms. Words of the first group fall into two parts: the base and

Productivity of word-forming and form-building affixes
Affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative. Using affixes for

Non-derivative and derived bases
Words in the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition. The stems of all significant words according to their morphological composition are divided into two groups: stems of non-pronounced words

Semantic and phonetic weakening of a non-derivative stem
Word-formation processes in some cases weaken the non-derivative stem in semantic and phonetic terms and even lead to the complete disappearance of the original stem and its replacement by another one.

Producing basis
A productive stem is not a special type of stem found in a language; There are only two such varieties - derivative and non-derivative. The term producing (or forming) the basis of decrees

Correlation between derivative and generating bases
The correlation between the derivative and the generating stems is expressed primarily in the presence of the given derivative stem and the supposed generating stems having common semantic-grammatical properties. For example

Changes in the morphological composition of a word
In modern Russian, the main organizing element of word formation is the stem (non-derivative and derivative). In the process of historical development of language, the way of images changed

Lexico-syntactic word formation
Lexico-syntactic word formation takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of use in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), t

Morphological word formation
The most productive way to enrich the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, i.e. creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by

Subject of morphology
Morphology is one of the sections of grammar. The term “grammar” is used in linguistics in a double meaning: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of a language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure

Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed. With the synthetic method g

Interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word
Just as vocabulary and grammar, being different aspects of language, are connected with each other, so the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word interact. This manifests itself, for example, in

General characteristics of the parts of speech of the modern Russian language
Depending on the lexical meaning, the nature of the morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories called h

Transitional phenomena in the area of parts of speech
In the process of language development, words from one lexical and grammatical category can move to another. If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basis

Composition of parts of speech
In modern Russian, parts of speech are distinguished between independent and auxiliary parts. A special group of words includes modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words. On your own

The meaning of a noun, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity and are called nouns. Nouns as parts of speech can be names

Common and proper nouns
Nouns can be common and proper. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree

Animate and inanimate nouns
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns include names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. living beings. K are inanimate

Nouns related to specific concepts
Nouns used to designate objects of reality or persons are called concrete (table, wall, notebook, friend, sister, etc.). Grammatically specific entities

Nouns with concrete material meaning
Among the common nouns, there is a group of words that are used to designate substances that are homogeneous in composition, amenable to division, measurement (but not counting, i.e. uncountable

Nouns associated with abstract concepts
Nouns used to denote abstract concepts of quality, action and state are called abstract, or abstract (whiteness, beauty, mowing, shooting, development, enthusiasm

Nouns that have the meaning of singularity
Specific common nouns, nouns used to designate persons or objects isolated from the mass of a substance or from among homogeneous ones, are called singular or singular (lat.

Nouns with collective meaning
Nouns used to designate a collection of homogeneous persons or objects as a certain indivisible whole, as a collective unity, are called collective (peasantry, educational

Gender of nouns
The most characteristic morphological feature of a noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with minor exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine,

Fluctuations in gender of nouns
In determining the gender of some nouns (relatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. Thus, individual nouns, usually used in the masculine form, sometimes

Gender of indeclinable nouns
According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often belong to the neuter gender: communiqué, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce,

Number of nouns
Most nouns denote countable objects and can be combined with cardinal numbers. Such nouns have correlative singular forms

Nouns that have only singular forms
Nouns denoting objects that are not counted or combined with cardinal numerals do not have plural forms. This group includes: 1) names of creatures

Nouns that have only plural forms
Nouns that do not have a singular number mainly include the following groups: 1) names of paired or complex (composite) objects: sleigh, droshky, scissors, pliers, gates, glasses,

Noun case
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes according to cases. Case is the grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of the noun

Basic meanings of cases
The nominative case form is the original case form of the word. In this form, the noun is used to name a person, an object, or a phenomenon. In this case there is always a subject

The role of prepositions in expressing the meanings of cases
Prepositions play a significant role in expressing case meanings. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of the cases. T

Basic types of noun declension
The types of declension of nouns differ in modern Russian only in singular case forms. In the plural, these differences are almost absent. In modern

Singular
Genitive. Along with the ending of the genitive singular case -а, -я, inanimate masculine nouns have the ending -у, -у, which introduces the meaning of the d case

Plural
Nominative case 1. Masculine nouns usually end in -ы, -и (tables, steering wheels). However, many words have the ending -a, -ya (stressed): boka, eyes

Singular
1. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases, a small group of words in -iya has a special ending -i: (o) lightning, (o) Mary, (o) army, on the Biya River (instead of the usual -e: (o) claw) .

Plural
1. In the genitive case, most words of the second declension have a zero ending: walls, herbs, drops; Some nouns with the stem in sibilant and in l, n (softened) have the ending -е:

Features of the third declension of nouns
1. The noun sazhen in the genitive plural, along with the form sazhen, also has the form sazhen. 2. In the instrumental case of the plural, along with the usual ending

Indeclinable nouns
Among the differently inflected nouns are ten nouns ending in -name: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown, which are inflected in a special way. 1. In

Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns are those that do not change by case. The majority of indeclinable nouns are foreign language borrowings. In the group we are adamant

Stress when declension of nouns
All nouns with regard to stress can be divided into two main groups: 1) nouns with constant stress (the place of which remains unchanged in all cases); 2) them

Productive ways to form nouns
Nouns are formed in modern Russian in different ways (see § 100-103). Thus, a significant number of new nouns appeared as a result of rethinking the sign

Suffixal, suffixal-prefixal and suffixless word formation
Among word-forming suffixes, there are non-productive ones, with the help of which new words are currently not formed (for example, the suffix -н is unproductive: illness, life; suffix -uh: p

Forming nouns by adding stems
Addition of stems is a type of morphological word formation when, as a result of the addition of two or more stems, a new word is formed. This method is widely used in modern Russian language

Conversion of words from other parts of speech into nouns
The transition to the category of nouns of words of other parts of speech is called substantivization (from Latin substantivum - noun). Adjectives most often turn into nouns (mainly

Transition of nouns to other parts of speech
In the process of language development, nouns can move into other parts of speech. There are frequent cases of using nouns, such as brother, sister, business, as pronouns. Wed: T

The meaning of the adjective, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives. The semantic basis of the adjective name is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging

Classes of adjectives by meaning
The attribute of an object is indicated by an adjective or directly by the lexical meaning of its basis (yellow, crimson, cheerful), or through the relationship of the object to other objects (brick house,

Qualitative adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are those adjectives that denote the signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are straight

Relative adjectives
Relative adjectives are those adjectives that denote a characteristic not directly, but through its relationship to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They denote

Transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is flexible, since semantic features that allow

Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives denote that an object belongs to a certain person or (less often) an animal: fathers, sisters, Lisin, cats, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives

Short forms of adjectives
Only qualitative adjectives have a short form. Short adjectives differ from full adjectives by certain morphological features (they do not change by case, they only have gender and number).

The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the original form

Ways to form comparative forms
In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming the comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee(s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is more friendly and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you.

Ways to form superlatives
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also synthetic and analytical. The synthetic superlative form is formed using the suffixes -eysh-, -a

Types of Declension of Adjectives
The declension of adjectives, in comparison with the declension of nouns, is more unified. In the nominative singular case, adjectives have a gender distinction: case endings

Ways to form adjectives
Adjectives in modern Russian are formed using a lexical-syntactic method (advance, stunning, etc.) and using a morphological-syntactic method (exquisite blue

Suffixal way of forming adjectives
The suffixal method of forming adjectives is the most productive in modern Russian. Derivative suffixes of qualitative and relative names are attached

Prefixal way of forming adjectives
The prefix method of formation is less productive. The following productive prefixes are used: 1) not-, not-without-: unsportsmanlike, quiet, unusual, well-known, not unsuccessful, etc.;

Prefix-suffix way of forming adjectives
The prefix-suffix method of forming adjectives in modern Russian is becoming increasingly widespread. The following groups of productive attachments are distinguished:

Forming adjectives by adding stems
Compounding as a way of forming adjectives is used more and more often in modern Russian. This is a very productive way of forming words. Most words created

Conversion of words from other parts of speech into adjectives
The use of different parts of speech as adjectives is called adjectivation (Latin adjectivum - adjective). A significant number of participles pass into the category of adjectives,

Transition of adjectives to other parts of speech
Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes become nouns, i.e. capable of being substantiated. Moving into the class of nouns, adjective

The meaning of numerals, their morphological features and syntactic functions
A numeral is a category of words that serve as names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of homogeneous objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles

Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numerals include numerals that denote in whole units an abstract number (ten divided by two) or a certain number of homogeneous objects (six books).

Morphological features of cardinal numbers
The morphological features of cardinal numbers are associated with their lexical meaning. Cardinal numerals do not have the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of numbers

Declension of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) is declined as the pronoun this (this, this). The numerals two, three, four have peculiar endings in the nominative and instrumental cases (two, three, four

Syntactic features of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) agrees with the noun in gender, number and case (cf.: one day, one day, one week, etc.). Numerals two, three, four in the nominative form -

Collective numbers
Numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, etc. are allocated to a special category of collective numerals. In modern Russian, collective numbers

Fractional numbers
Fractional numerals denote fractional quantities, i.e. quantities of certain parts of a unit, and represent the combination of them. case of cardinal number (number of parts - numerator of fraction

Numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred are designations of quantities consisting of a whole and its half. The derivation of these words (from “pol vtor”, “pol vtory”, “pol vtor hundred”) in the present

Indefinite words
The group of words with the meaning of an indefinite quantity (large or small) can also be classified as indefinite quantitative numerals: a lot, a little, a little, a lot, so many and several.

Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numbers are words that denote the order of homogeneous objects when counting them (first ticket, third question, etc.). Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, appear in

The meaning of pronouns. Correlation of pronouns with other parts of speech
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, indicate them. The specific lexical meaning of a pronoun is obtained only in context. For example, the pronoun you or

Places of pronouns by meaning
According to their meaning, as well as according to their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories: 1. Personal pronouns, we (1st person); you, you (2nd person); he, (she, it), they (3rd person), representing

Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
Some pronouns, under certain conditions, may lose their demonstrative functions and acquire characteristics of other parts of speech. So, the pronouns my, ours, myself, nobody's, that, this and others can

Using other parts of speech as pronouns
The use of different parts of speech as pronouns is called pronominalization (Latin pronomen - pronoun). The following words functionally pass into the category of pronouns: nouns

Meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions of the verb
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process. The word "process" as used here has a broad meaning; this word means labor activity

Conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb and their syntactic role
Changing the verb by moods, and within moods by tenses (only in the indicative mood), by persons (in the indicative and partially in the imperative mood) and by numbers, as well as by gender

Infinitive form of the verb, its meaning, formation and syntactic use
The indefinite form (infinitive) is part of the system of verb forms, although it has a very unique structure. The semantically indefinite form is similar to the nominative case of a creature's name

Two verb stems
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. Verbal by education

From the history of the issue
The category of aspect in the Russian language took shape relatively late (at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century), and already in the 17th century. it was reflected in the grammars of M. Smotrytsky and J. Krizhanich. Category view

The concept of category of species
The category of aspect is inherent in all forms of the verb. The verbs decided and decided mean the same action, but differ grammatically. The verb decided in the perfect form, it denotes an action that is

Formation of species
When forming verb types, the initial form, with few exceptions, is the verb with the meaning of the imperfect form. Perfective verbs are usually formed from verbs n

Verb aspect pairs
When forming verbs of one type from another using prefixes, two results are possible: a) attaching a prefix to an imperfective verb introduces the meaning of the verb inherent in the prefix

Verbs that do not have paired forms of another type
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) unprefixed verbs with the suffix -ыва- (-iva-) with the meaning of repetition. In modern literary language such verbs are used

Bi-aspect verbs
Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfective and imperfect forms are two-type, but in context they can have a meaning characteristic of one type. These are verbs with the suffixes -ova

Methods of verb action
The lexical-grammatical category of the verb interacts with the grammatical category of aspect, expressing the modes of verbal action, i.e. those values that are associated with the action process (any

From the history of the issue
The category of voice has been and remains to this day the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians had different understandings of the scope and grammatical content of the category hall

Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of this distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. Transitive verbs include action verbs

The concept of the category of collateral
According to the currently most widespread theory, the category of voice is associated with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive. The grammatical category of voice is called verb kate

Basic pledges and their formation
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) the affix -sya, attached to the verb

The concept of mood category
The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of a statement, can be thought of by the speaker as reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or necessity. Score patois

Verb moods
The indicative mood expresses an action that is conceived by the speaker as quite real, actually flowing in time (present, past and future): The Urals serve well, have served and will serve in

The concept of the category of time
The category of time in the traditional sense expresses the relationship between the time of the action of the verb and the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action expressed by the verb coincides with the moment p

Basic meanings and uses of tense forms
Present tense. The forms of the present tense have the following types of meaning and use: a) the meaning of a specific action that is carried out at the moment of speech and has a limited

Face category
The category of person indicates the subject of the action expressed by the verb: the speaker (first person), the speaker's interlocutor (second person), a person or object not participating in the speech (third person). Forms 1st and

Impersonal verbs
Verbs that express actions and states that occur on their own, without their producer (subject), are called impersonal. With such verbs, the use of a subject is impossible: dusk, dawn

Verb conjugation types
Changing verbs in the present and future simple tense according to persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the narrow sense of the word); for conjugation in the broad sense, see § 173. Two types of conjugation - first

Ways to form verbs
When forming verbs, three morphological methods of word formation are productive to varying degrees: prefixal, suffixal and suffixal-prefixal. Prefix method

Participle as a form of mixed verbal-nominal formation
A participle is an unconjugated form of a verb that defines an object like an adjective. It denotes a sign of an object that occurs in time, like an action that produces the object.

Forms of participles and their formation
The participle in modern Russian has several varieties, which are determined by the grammatical meanings of the verb inherent in the participle: active participles, reflexive participles and passive participles.

Conversion of participles into adjectives
The presence of participles with features common to adjectives contributes to the transition of participles into adjectives. This transition, observed in previous periods of the history of the Russian language,

The participle as a form of verbal-adverbial formation
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb, combining the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb: The waves rush, thundering and sparkling (Tyutch.). The gerunds rattling and sparkling denote additional

Tense category for gerunds
Participles, as unchangeable forms of the verb, are deprived of the ability to express morphologically temporal meanings. Participles have only a relative designation of time. The gerund is not over

Transition of gerunds into adverbs
The invariability of the gerund and its syntactic role (adverbial circumstance) are the basis on which the transition of gerunds into adverbs takes place. This transition is facilitated by the absence of gerunds

The meaning of the adverb, its morphological features and syntactic role
Adverbs include unchangeable words that denote a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other sign. For example: He wanted to hug and kiss Streltsov, but his throat suddenly collapsed

Classes of adverbs by meaning
According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and adverbial adverbs. Determinative adverbs characterize an action or sign in terms of its quality, quantity

Classes of adverbs by education
The correlation of adverbs with other parts of speech indicates their origin and method of formation. Adverbs are correlative with names, pronouns and verbs. Replenishing at the expense of others

Ways of forming adverbs
The formation of adverbs occurred and occurs in various ways. The most characteristic of them are the following: 1) separation of one of the nominal forms from the inflectional system with simultaneous

Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles
The most productive group of adverbs formed from adjectives and participles. Without prefixes, adverbs are formed from qualitative adjectives using the suffixes -o, -e: bad, ho

Adverbs formed from nouns
Among adverbs formed from nouns, non-prepositional formations and prepositional ones stand out. Of the non-prepositional formations, the most productive group of adverbs representing their own

Adverbs formed from numerals
Adverbs formed from numerals are relatively few in number. From cardinal numbers, adverbs are formed: 1) using the suffix -zhdy: twice, three times, four times; 2) way

Adverbs formed from pronouns
Among the adverbs of pronominal origin, we stand out, firstly, adverbs of ancient origin, which have lost living connections with pronominal words in modern language: where, where, from, from there, when

Adverbs formed from verbs
Adverbs of verbal formation represent a relatively small group. They come, as a rule, from gerunds, which, turning into adverbs, lose aspect and voice

Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Along with the process of adverbialization (transition into the category of adverbs), which is very active and broad, the opposite process takes place in the Russian language - the process of transition of adverbs into other lexico-grammar

Semantic, morphological and syntactic features of impersonal predicative words
Impersonal predicative words, or the category of state, are significant, unchangeable nominal and adverbial words that denote a state and are used as a predicate of an impersonal preposition.

Classifications of impersonal predicative words by meaning
The following groups of impersonal predicative words are distinguished by meaning: 1. Impersonal predicative words denoting the mental and physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment

Classes of impersonal predicative words by education
Impersonal predicative words are related in origin to adjectives, correlative adverbs and partly nouns. This transition is carried out on the basis of a complex interweaving of St.

The question of impersonal predicative words in grammatical literature
Impersonal predicative words, as words intermediate between names and verbs, begin to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. When highlighting these words, the custom was emphasized

Characteristic features of function words
Function words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant words, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not the names of the item

Particles and their functions in speech
Particles are function words that express additional semantic shades of sentences, phrases and individual words. So, for example, does a particle really relate to the whole sentence and give it the character

Particle ranks by value
Particles according to their meaning are divided into three main groups: I. Particles expressing shades of meaning. Such particles include: a) demonstrative: here, there. Here's a bream, eat

Word-forming and form-forming particles
Word-forming particles form new words: 1) -that, -or, -something, some- serve to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs: something, somewhere, etc.; 2) does not form negative pronouns

Morphological composition of prepositions
According to their morphological composition, prepositions are non-derivative and derivative. 1. Non-derivative, so-called primitive, prepositions cannot be correlated in formation with any

Meanings of prepositions
The meanings of prepositions are very diverse and complex and are revealed only in combination with the case form. They can express: spatial relationships: vacation in Crimea and the Caucasus; temporary relationship: p

Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions
Based on their syntactic functions, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, as well as parts of complex sentences. P

Single, repeating, double conjunctions
In terms of use, conjunctions are of three types: 1) single, used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the typical one in this regard is the conjunction but (subordinating conjunctions

Modal words as a special category of words in the Russian language
Modal words are words through which the speaker evaluates his utterance as a whole or its individual parts from the point of view of their relationship to objective reality. For example: This is ver

Digits of modal words by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are distinguished: 1. Modal words expressing a logical assessment of the statement, the speaker’s confidence in the reality of the message: certainly, true, act

Correlation of modal words with other parts of speech
Modal words, as a special lexical and grammatical category of words, are correlated with various parts of speech, namely: a) with nouns: truth, fact, right. Wed: True eyes

Lexico-grammatical uniqueness of modal words
Modal words differ from nominative words, with which they are related by origin, by the absence of a nominative function. Modal words are not names of objects, features or processes, but

The concept of interjection
Interjections are words that directly express our feelings, experiences and expressions of will, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech

The role of interjections in language
Syntactically, interjections also differ from significant parts of speech, because they, as a rule, are not parts of the sentence, although intonationally they are usually associated with the sentences to which they adjoin

Ranks of interjections by meaning
Interjections, according to their lexical meaning, are divided into two main categories: 1) interjections expressing various feelings (emotional interjections), and 2) interjections expressing will, order, etc.,

Groups of interjections by method of formation and origin
According to their formation, all interjections fall into two main groups: primary (primitive) and derivative. 1. The first group includes primitive interjections, consisting of either one

Verb interjections
In the modern Russian language, words are distinguished that, on the one hand, have the structure of interjections and their inherent expression and dynamism, on the other hand, they have verbal features (aspect, tense). WITH

Onomatopoeic words
Words that are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, are called onomatopoeic. In their syntactic functions they are similar to interjections. However

Collocation and sentence as basic syntactic units
Syntax, as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech, includes two main parts: 1) the study of phrases and 2) the study of sentences. Of particular note is the section dealing with

Main features of the proposal
Most types of sentences, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical judgment. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predetermination finds its expression.

Brief history of the issue
The problem of word combinations has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was considered to be the doctrine of “word composition”, i.e. about combining words into

Types of phrases according to their structure
According to the structure, phrases are divided into simple (two-nomial) and complex (polynomial). In simple phrases there is a spread of one word to another with different semantic meanings.

Types of phrases depending on the lexico-grammatical properties of the main word
Depending on which word is the main word in a phrase, the main lexical and grammatical types of phrases differ. The classification according to this criterion has the following scheme:

Syntactic relations between the components of phrases
The words included in phrases are in different semantic-syntactic relationships with each other. In general, these relationships can be reduced to the main ones: a) attributive (for example: tetra

Ways of expressing syntactic relations in phrases and sentences
The most important means of expressing relationships between members of a phrase (and members of a sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, the connection between all changeable words acting as dependent

Types of syntactic connections in phrases and sentences
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal, independent elements (members of sentences) come into connection.

Proposals of real and unreal modality. Affirmative and negative sentences
The general meaning of objective modality conveyed in a sentence is differentiated as the meaning of temporal certainty and temporal uncertainty. In the first case, what is reported in the sentence is

Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences
Depending on the purpose of the statement, sentences are distinguished: narrative, interrogative and incentive. Narrative sentences are those that contain a message about something.

Exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences are emotionally charged sentences, which are conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Different types of sentences can have emotional connotations:

Common and non-common offers
Uncommon is a sentence consisting only of the main members - subject and predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away (L.); He is young, good (L.); Several years have passed (P

Two-part and one-part sentences
A sentence consists of main members - subject and predicate, and secondary ones, some of which relate to the subject and together with it form the composition of the subject, others - to the predicate and image

Simple and complex sentences
A simple sentence has one or two grammatical compounds and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); After noon she started

Main members of a two-part sentence
A two-part sentence is a sentence that has two grammatical compositions: the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate. The composition of the subject is the subject with or without words related to it

Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic function
The main members of a sentence can be explained by members that are called minor, since they grammatically depend on other members of the sentence. The term "minor members of the sentence"

Expressing the subject using different parts of speech
The most common form of expressing the subject is the nominative case of the noun. The objective meaning of the noun and the independent nominative case are most suitable

Expressing the subject using phrases
The role of the subject can be phrases that are integral in meaning, lexically or syntactically indecomposable. These include: 1. Composite geographical names (Northern Arctic

Verbal predicate, formally likened to the subject
The role of the verbal predicate is played by verb forms of any mood, tense and person. For example: 1) verb in the indicative mood: The autumn wind brings sadness (N.); Pugachev m

Verbal predicate, not formally assimilated to the subject
The verb predicate is expressed: 1) by an infinitive with the meaning of an energetic beginning of an action: Our brethren - swear (Pumped); And new friends, well, hug, well, kiss... (Kr.); 2)

Complex verb predicate
Complicated forms of a simple verbal predicate include a combination of two verbs or a combination of a verb with different particles. These include: 1. The combination of two verbs in the same form

Verbal predicate expressed by a phraseological phrase
Simple verbal predicates also include predicates expressed by phraseological combinations with varying degrees of cohesion of parts, since they have a single integral meaning (cf.: came out of

Compound verb predicate with modal verb
This includes verbs such as want, wish, be able, be able, intend, try, strive, refuse, hope, fear, etc. For example: I wanted to portray ordinary decent people in a new way

Compound verb predicate with predicative adjective
Along with modal verbs, predicative adjectives (special short adjectives used in the role of ska) can be used as the first component of a compound verbal predicate.

Predicate expressed by adverb, participle, interjection and phraseological combination
1. The predicate can be expressed by an adverb with or without a connective, for example: At your age I was married (L.T.); How inopportune this memory was (Ch.); After all, I am somewhat akin to her (Gr.). 2

Types of complex predicate
A complex (trinomial, polynomial) is a predicate consisting of three or more parts (the term “complex predicate” is used here not in the meaning in which it is sometimes used, see § 259

Form of the verb predicate
The verb predicate is coordinated with the subject, the expressed personal pronoun, in person and number, and in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the subjunctive mood - in gender and number. Nap

Bundle shape
The copula usually correlates with the subject (in the past tense - in gender and number), for example: My whole life was the guarantee of a faithful meeting with you (P.). If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, then with

Brief history of the issue
The question of minor members of a sentence in the history of Russian grammar has different solutions. However, two main directions in the doctrine of minor members of a sentence stand out: races

Definitions agreed and inconsistent
According to the nature of the syntactic connection between the definition and the word being defined, all definitions are divided into agreed and inconsistent. Definitions agreed upon are expressed by those parts of speech that

Ways to Express Complements
Supplements are usually expressed by nouns (with and without prepositions) in indirect cases, as well as words used in the meaning of nouns (pronominal nouns,

Types of additions and their meanings
Due to their basic meaning - designating the object of an action or state - additions usually refer to sentence members expressed by verbs or impersonal predicative words, i.e. tale

Additions in active and passive phrases
An active phrase is a phrase with a direct object and a predicate expressed by a transitive verb. The subject in actual circulation denotes an actor or thing, and the complement denotes a person

Ways of expressing circumstances
Circumstances can be expressed by adverbs, gerunds, nouns in the instrumental case without a preposition, nouns in the oblique cases with prepositions, infinitives, phraseological

Types of circumstances by meaning
Denoting a qualitative characteristic of an action, state or sign, as well as the conditions accompanying them (indication of the cause, time, place, etc.), circumstances are divided into circumstances image

Syntactic and actual division of sentences
A sentence as a unit of syntax includes members of the sentence that occupy certain syntactic positions. This division of a sentence from the point of view of its syntactic structure is

Communicative, syntactic and stylistic meaning of word order
The order of words in a sentence - the arrangement of word forms in it - can perform the following functions: 1) communicative (is a means of actual division of a sentence and, more broadly, of any actualization);

Place of subject and predicate in a simple sentence
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually in front of the predicate (the latter is postpositive), for example: Marya Ivanovna walked up the stairs with trepidation (P.); They entered the courtyard

Place of an object in a sentence
The addition (verb and adjective) is usually postpositive, for example: I will send you ammunition and tobacco (A.N.T.); About a hundred workers were clearing warehouses and sites (Azh.). Pre

Place of definition in a sentence
The agreed upon definition is usually prepositive, for example: To the left was a deep gorge... (Azh.); ...He took out his grief on your sides - the grief of his life (M. G.); It became creepy in these silent

Place of circumstances in a sentence
Circumstances of the manner of action, expressed by adverbs starting with -о, -е, are usually prepositive, for example: One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shores, making a defiant noise, crawling towards Rahim’s head (M.G.). ABOUT

Definitely personal proposals
Definitely personal sentences are those whose main member is expressed by the form of a verb in the first or second person of the present and future tense. The verb in this case does not need a place

Vaguely personal proposals
Indefinite-personal sentences are those one-part sentences in which the main member is expressed by a verb in the form of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tense or in the form

Generalized-personal proposals
Generalized personal sentences are one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a verb of the 2nd person singular (present and future tense), and the action denoted by the verb is in

Impersonal offers
Impersonal sentences are one-part sentences, the main member of which does not allow the designation of the subject of action in the form of the nominative case and names a process or state regardless of the active

Infinitive sentences
The main member of a one-part sentence can be expressed by an infinitive that does not depend on any other word in the sentence; therefore, it cannot have either an impersonal verb or an impersonal

Nominative sentences
Nominative sentences are those one-part sentences whose main member is expressed by a noun or a substantivized part of speech in the nominative case. The main member can be grown

Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences
Some syntactic constructions may coincide in form with nominative sentences, but in fact they are not them. These are constructions that either do not contain the meaning of being, su

Types of word-sentences
Sentence words are divided into several groups depending on their function in speech. Affirmative words-sentences: - Smells of sulfur. Is this necessary? - Yes (Ch.). - St

Types of Incomplete Sentences
Incomplete sentences are divided into contextual and situational. Contextual are incomplete sentences with unnamed members of the sentence that were mentioned in the context: in the nearest paragraphs

Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech
Incomplete sentences are especially typical for dialogical speech, which is a combination of remarks or a unity of questions and answers. The peculiarity of dialogic sentences is determined by the fact that in

Elliptic sentences (sentences with zero predicate)
Elliptical are self-used sentences of a special type, the specific structure of which is the absence of a verbal predicate, and a predicate not mentioned in the context

The concept of homogeneous members
Homogeneous members of a sentence are members of the same name, connected to each other by a coordinating connection and performing the same syntactic function in the sentence, i.e. united are the same

Unions with homogeneous members
To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, the following categories of coordinating conjunctions are used: 1. Connecting conjunctions: and, yes (meaning “and”), neither...nor, etc. The conjunction and can be single and p

Homogeneous definitions
Homogeneous definitions are each directly connected with the word being defined and are in the same relationship to it. Homogeneous definitions are connected by coordinating conjunctions and list

Heterogeneous definitions
Definitions are heterogeneous if the preceding definition does not refer directly to the defined noun, but to a combination of the subsequent definition and the defined noun

Form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
The form of the predicate for homogeneous subjects depends on a number of conditions: word order, the meaning of conjunctions, the lexical meaning of the subject or predicate, etc. 1. For subjects having the form m

Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The question of agreement in number in the presence of definitions in sentences with homogeneous members arises in two cases: 1) if one definition refers to several homogeneous defined

Prepositions with homogeneous members
Prepositions can be repeated before all homogeneous members, for example: Death prowls the fields, the ditches, the heights of the mountains... (Kr.). It is possible to omit identical prepositions, but different prepositions are not

Generalizing words for homogeneous sentence members
A generalizing word is usually a grammatical form of expression of a generic concept, uniting, on the basis of material proximity, subordinate concepts, the grammatical form of expression of which serves as

General concepts
Separation is the semantic and intonation separation of minor members in order to give them some independence in a sentence. Isolated members of the sentence contain the element add

Separate Consensus Definitions
1. As a rule, common definitions are isolated, expressed by a participle or an adjective with words dependent on them and standing after the noun being defined, for example: Cloud, hanging

Separate inconsistent definitions
1. Inconsistent definitions, expressed by indirect cases of nouns, are isolated if it is necessary to emphasize the meaning they express, for example: Headman, in boots and in a saddle coat, with a bu

Isolated circumstances expressed by gerunds and participial phrases
1. As a rule, participial phrases are isolated, i.e. gerunds with explanatory words, acting as secondary predicates or adverbials with different meanings, for example: Pass

Isolated circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs
Depending on the semantic load, weak syntactic connection with the predicate verb, the degree of prevalence of the phrase, and its intentional emphasis, the circumstances expressed by it can be isolated

Isolation of revolutions with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion, substitution
Case forms of nouns with prepositions or prepositional combinations can be isolated: besides, instead of, besides, apart from, excluding, over, etc., with the meaning of inclusion, exception, for

Isolation of clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the proposal
Along with isolation in the proper sense of the word, i.e. by highlighting the minor members of the sentence, there is an intonation-semantic highlighting in the sentence of words that can be not only second

Introductory words and phrases
Introductory words are words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence (that is, not related to them by the method of coordination, control or adjacency), that are not members of the sentence and express

Introductory sentences
The meanings inherent in introductory words and phrases can be expressed in whole sentences that retain the intonation features of introductory constructions. For example: Buran, it seemed to me, was still with

Plug-in structures
Inserted words are words, phrases and sentences that introduce additional information, incidental comments, clarifications, explanations, amendments, etc. into the main sentence. Similar to

The concept of conversion
An address is a word or combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom speech is addressed. The address extends the sentence, but is not a member of it (i.e., it does not perform the function of p

Ways of expressing appeal
The natural form of expression of address is a noun in the nominative case, which performs a nominative function. In Old Russian, the vocative case form was used for this purpose

Brief history of the issue
In the works of A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradov highlights the special meaning of some conjunctions - connecting (A.M. Peshkovsky speaks of composition and subordination after the dividing clause

The essence of joining
Accession - as a unique type of syntactic connection - differs from both composition and subordination. When composing, the elements of a statement act as syntactically equal

Structural and grammatical types of connecting constructions
In structural and grammatical terms, connecting structures are not homogeneous. The following can be added to the main statement: 1) constructions with connecting conjunctions and allied words

Union connection structures
1. Additive conjunctions and conjunctive combinations are usually formed by combining coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, as well as some particles and pronominal adverbs with conjunctions and, a. These are the ones

Unionless connecting structures
Non-union connecting structures, used only after a long pause, are divided into four groups according to their functions: 1) connecting structures that act as members

The concept of a complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains two or more predicative units that form a single whole in semantic, constructive and intonation terms. The difference between

Essay and subordination in a complex sentence
According to the way the parts are connected, complex sentences are differentiated from allied and non-union ones. The former are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) complex sentences and 2) complex sentences

Means of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Semantic and syntactic relationships between the parts of a complex sentence are expressed using the following means: a) conjunctions, b) relative words, c) intonation, d) order of parts. Unions connect

Structure of compound sentences
A complex sentence is a complex sentence whose parts are connected by coordinating conjunctions. The connection by the method of composition gives the parts of a complex sentence a known

Connective Relationships
In complex sentences expressing connecting relationships, the means of connecting parts of a single whole are conjunctions and, yes, neither (repeating), also, too (the last two with the connecting from

Adverse relationships
Complex sentences with adversative conjunctions (a, but, yes, however, but, same, etc.) express relations of opposition or comparison, sometimes with various additional shades (inconsistency

Compound sentences expressing connecting relations
Some coordinating conjunctions are used in a complex sentence to express connecting relations in which the content of the second part of the complex sentence is an additional

A brief history of the complex sentence issue
The question of a complex sentence in its history practically came down to the classification of subordinate clauses, or, as they were conventionally called, “subordinate clauses”, which is closely connected primarily with everything

Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependence of parts
The most general structural indicator of a complex sentence is the verb and non-verbal dependence of the subordinate clause. This feature is justified as follows. Subordinate clause connection

Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence
1. The main syntactic means of communication in a complex sentence are special connecting elements, formal indicators of the interconnectedness of parts. These are subordinating conjunctions

Semantic-structural types of complex sentences
The structural indicators of a complex sentence are, as it has been found out, firstly, the nature of the connection between the subordinate clause and the main clause (verbal and non-verbal); secondly, grammatical means

Subsubstantive-defining sentences
Subsubstantive-defining sentences, depending on the function of the subordinate clause, have two varieties. The function of the subordinate clause depends on the extent to which the entity it defines

Pronominal-defining sentences
Complex sentences with a defining subordinate clause relating to the pronoun (indicative or attributive) in the main clause are characterized by the following features: 1) pronoun g

Explanatory clauses with conjunctive subordination
Explanatory clauses are joined by conjunctions that, as, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, so that, if, whether, while. Subordinate clauses with a conjunction that contain a message about a real entity

Explanatory clauses with relative subordination
As allied words that attach explanatory clauses, the relative pronouns who, what, which, which, what, whose and pronominal adverbs where, where, from where, when, how are used

The use of correlative words in explanatory clauses
Complex sentences with an explanatory clause may have correlative words in the main clause. The function of these words is not the same. They can be used to enhance, highlight, etc.

Complex sentences with simultaneity relation
Relations of simultaneity are expressed in sentences with subordinate, attached conjunctions when, while, as, while (archaic), as long as (colloquial), while usually with verbs in the main and came

Complex sentences with multitemporal relations
The relationship of different times is expressed by the conjunctions when, while, for the time being, while, after, since, as soon as, only just, just now, just, just a little, as, barely, only, before

Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts
Complex sentences can consist of parts whose contents are compared. Formally, such sentences have a subordinate part, since they contain subordinating conjunctions (or the conjunction

Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts
One of the parts of a complex sentence can explain another, specifying its meaning or conveying it in other words. The explanatory part is attached to the explained part using conjunctions, that is, and

Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses
Complex sentences can have several subordinate clauses. In complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, two types of relations between the combined parts are possible.

Complex sentences with several main parts and one subordinate clause
In complex sentences there may be two (or several) main parts that have one common subordinate clause. The main parts in this case are interconnected by coordinating conjunctions (possibly

Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main types of non-conjunctive complex sentences: correlative with conjunctive complex sentences and non-correlative with them. Propositions of the second type are found comparatively

Varieties of complex syntactic structures
Depending on various combinations of types of connection between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with essay and non-union connection

Structural features of complex syntactic integers
Complex syntactic wholes can be of homogeneous or heterogeneous composition. Between homogeneous sentences as part of complex syntactic wholes, a parallel connection is found, between heterogeneous

Paragraph and complex syntactic whole
A paragraph and a complex syntactic whole are units of different levels of division, since the bases for their organization are different (a paragraph does not have a special syntactic design, unlike a complex syntactic

Paragraph in dialogic and monologue text
Paragraph division has one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. However, parts of the text can be highlighted for different specific purposes. Accordingly, the fus differ

The concept of direct and indirect speech
The statements of other persons included in the author's presentation form the so-called alien speech. Depending on the lexico-syntactic means and methods of transmitting someone else’s speech, direct speech differs

Direct speech
Direct speech is characterized by the following features: 1) accurately reproduces someone else’s statement; 2) accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is to establish the very fact of someone else's speech

Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's statement in the form of a subordinate clause. Wed: Direct speech Indirect speech Podosh

Improperly direct speech
Someone else's speech can be conveyed in fiction using the technique of so-called improperly direct speech. In this case, lexical and syntactic features are preserved to one degree or another.

Basics of Russian punctuation
Punctuation is a collection of rules for placing punctuation marks, as well as the system of punctuation marks used in written speech. The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate

Basic functions of punctuation marks
In the modern punctuation system of the Russian language, punctuation marks are functionally significant: they have generalized meanings assigned to them, which fix the patterns of their use. Functionality