Nuclear lake Chagan in Kazakhstan: echoes of nuclear tests of the USSR. Atomic Lake Chagan Atomic Lake Chagan on the map

How did a nuclear lake appear on the territory of the USSR?

During the global confrontation between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, which went down in history as the Cold War, nuclear energy tests were carried out en masse on both sides. Thus, in contrast to the American Plowshare program, which implied the development of technologies for peaceful nuclear explosions, the USSR is launching its project development « peaceful atom" The program started under the working title “ The use of nuclear explosions in the national economy" Soviet scientists proposed using the force of a nuclear explosion when digging pits, building quarries, harbors, canals, as well as when carrying out stripping operations, constructing underground reservoirs for storing water, burying waste, and for many other tasks. The first industrial test of an atomic explosion was carried out in 1965 in Kazakhstan. The goal was to create an artificial reservoir in the arid regions of the Kazakh SSR, mostly for irrigation of fields and the needs of cattle breeding.
The 140-kiloton charge (equal to nine Hiroshimas) was planted at a depth of 178 meters in a dry river floodplain Chagan. The device detonated and, as a result of a powerful explosion, a crater with a diameter of 400 m and a depth of 100 m was formed. A gas cloud appeared that reached a height of more than 4 thousand meters, and the explosion threw 10 million tons of soil to a height of 950 meters. Later, the funnel was connected to the riverbed to fill it with water. As a result, the final goal was achieved; another lake appeared on the map.

Nuclear lake - Chagan.

Satellite image of Lake Chagan, Kazakhstan.

The reservoir, which locals nicknamed Atom-Kul (Atomic Lake), exists to this day. The water in it is still radioactive (the permissible level of radionuclides for drinking water exceeds the norm by 100 times).

Nuclear lake - Chagan.

But then the USSR government had a completely different attitude towards the results of its experiment. A Soviet documentary film about the Chagan test, released in 1966, will tell you about this, which talked about the positive results of the experiment and indicated that the water in the lake created by the energy of a nuclear explosion is completely safe for humans.

As a result of the explosion, a radioactive cloud covered the territory of 11 nearby settlements with a total population of two thousand people. People living in contaminated areas received a radiation dose to the thyroid gland of more than 14 rem (with an acceptable radiation level of 0.5 rem per year or 5 rem in 50 years). The Chagan project involved 182 people. For people employed in these jobs, the “expected radiation dose” was set at 30 roentgens (with a norm of five roentgens per year). Also, more than 20% of the radioactive cloud ended up over Japanese territory. The United States protested and accused the USSR of violating the 1963 Treaty on the Partial Ban of Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Underwater. According to the Soviet Union, he did not violate the above-mentioned document, since it prohibited testing in all environments except underground. After several months of diplomatic correspondence, the conflict was forgotten.

Nuclear lake - Chagan.

At the end of the sixties, biologists came to the lake and set up an experimental station to conduct a series of experiments. In particular, the issue of the impact of residual radiation on living organisms was studied. Due to the fact that radiobiology of those times, when science was just in its infancy, they acted exclusively by the “scientific poking method”. Thus, over the course of several years, more than 30 species of fish (including Amazonian piranhas), 32 species of amphibians, 27 species of mollusks, 11 specimens of reptiles, 8 specimens of mammals, 42 species of invertebrates and 150 species of plants were released into the artificial reservoir. As a result, about 90% of organisms died from unsuitable environmental conditions or were displaced by predatory species. In almost all surviving samples, biologists noted abnormal development and changes in appearance in the offspring. For example, freshwater crayfish have increased significantly in size and began to resemble their Pacific counterparts. A year later, the experimental station was closed.

A trip from Almaty to the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.

“Pioneers are driven by curiosity, followed by science.”

Jacques Yves Cousteau.

A trip from the city of Kurchatov to the Degelen site.

In June we made a trip around the East Kazakhstan region. At the end of the route, the program included a trip to some places of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.
As a rule, I put not the most interesting places at the end of the trip; fatigue and impressions, I think, will break the desire to go further. After visiting Semey (Semipalatinsk), somehow the wheels of the car carried us along the laid route towards the village of Znamenka.
After the village of Znamenka, the main road goes to the village of Sarzhal, to the southwest, but in the middle of the road we turned north into the depths of the training ground. The settlements ended and there was NOTHING further!
It’s just a road that we inherited from the Soviet Union, mostly asphalt, but old, without pothole repairs, you can see the desolation of the road. In the distance, the surface of the water loomed, this is the Shagan reservoir.
Along the route, in the north, the reservoir ends in an almost round lake, apparently in the shape of a nuclear explosion. As you know, a nuclear explosion was carried out underground in the floodplain of the Chagan River, in well No. 1004 at a depth of 178 meters on January 15, 1965, at 05 hours 59 minutes 59 seconds in the morning GMT.
In the future, it was planned in Kazakhstan to create about 40 artificial reservoirs with a total volume of 120-140 million cubic meters using nuclear explosions. In such deep reservoirs with a melted bottom and a small surface of evaporation, it was planned to accumulate spring water flows.
At the beginning of 1965, the bed of the Chaganka River was connected to the funnel formed by a canal. Later, a stone-earth dam with culvert structures was built here.
This is history. Of course, at first the track led us to the shore of the Shagan reservoir, a sad sight, a dilapidated house on the shore and the shore was littered and cluttered as much as our fisherman could.
Yes, fisherman, a bunch of fishermen, in a word, they catch fish on Shagan and the fishermen are happy with their catches. A car drove up to us, they asked us: “How’s the fishing?”, and chatted. An elderly man came to fish, but saw that the shore was littered with garbage - he left for another place.
He told us how to go to Atomic Lake. And here we are somewhere near this lake, we left the car in the hillocks and walked along the piled up hills in the direction of the lake. The hills are really piled up, these are gigantic heaps of earth, the results of the ejection of soil from the explosion.
Everything that is close to the lake is huge heaps of earth, further from these heaps, to the side are individual pieces of huge stones, “bombs”, everything that was thrown out from the depths of the earth by the energy of the explosion. From the outside, this resembles the consequences of a volcanic eruption, if anyone has seen such a thing.
After the explosion, these stone “bombs” were pristine and intact, and only over time they floated, collapsed, and some of them were left with piles of multi-colored earth. Among these emissions, a non-specialist can understand the geological eras and eras of the structure of the earth.
We passed countless hillocks, the last takeoff, and here in front of us was Atomic Lake, an almost ideally rounded shape, connected by a small strait to the Shagan Reservoir.
Climbing higher and looking around the waters of the lake, you might think that this is a volcano filled with water. To some extent, this is true. Atomic explosions also create lakes similar to volcanic ones.
On the opposite shore of the lake, on the slope you can see outbursts of multi-colored rocks similar to the clays of the Shakelmes tract. The surrounding area is full of different pipes sticking out of the ground, in one place a small grove of poplars was planted.
There is a road along the southern shore of the lake that leads to the dam and reservoir. When we saw groups of fishermen sitting around their cars under awnings, it somehow didn’t occur to us that it was dangerous here and that there could be radiation.
Apparently the fishermen have long since absorbed all the radiation and dangers of this lake.

There is an amazing lake in Kazakhstan, in which the bottom is like melted glass. The water there is almost black. The carp that live there grow up to a meter, and other fish are wonderful and terrifying. This is Atom-kol, Lake Chagan in the Semipalatinsk region. Knowledgeable people try to avoid it. Those who come here by chance are surprised by the ominous beauty of this place.

Man-made miracle

Lake Chagan in Kazakhstan is the work of Soviet nuclear scientists. They proposed using a directed nuclear explosion to create artificial reservoirs for storing water in arid regions. As planned by scientists, at least forty similar lakes should have appeared in Central Asia.

In this way, it was planned to solve the problem of summer drought and optimize agriculture in the Kazakh steppes. This is how Chagan appeared, with a capacity of 20 million cubic meters. m of water.

Time for great achievements

In the Soviet Union, scientists developed grandiose projects to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes. The best minds struggled to create ships, planes and even cars whose engines would work as a result of nuclear reactions. Realizing the incredible power of atomic energy, they proposed using this colossal energy to build canals, tunnels and reservoirs to collect gigantic volumes of water.

The enthusiasm of physicists knew no bounds. The program was called “Peaceful Atom”. In the pursuit of scientific achievements, no thought was given to the consequences for the environment and the health of the nation. Shock construction projects and the raising of virgin soil engulfed the entire union. Swamps were drained, rivers were turned back, and new lakes were formed by the will of man in the places he planned. It was a time when man did not expect favors from nature. Now he is paying for his arrogance.

First explosion

In the USSR, the first industrial explosion was carried out on January 15, 1965 in the Semipalatinsk region. At that time there was a test site where nuclear weapons were tested. For the experiment, a place in the Kazakh steppes was chosen remote from large cities. According to the scientists' idea, the explosion should have formed a giant crater, the edges and bottom of which would have melted from the high temperature. Water from such a reservoir will not seep into the ground, and local residents will be able to use it to water livestock and irrigate surrounding fields. A targeted explosion was carried out in the area of the small river Chagan, which dries up in the summer. The project was led by nuclear scientist Ivan Turchin.

Powerful explosion

An explosive device was planted in well No. 1004 at the Balapan site in the floodplain of the small Chaganka river to a depth of 178 meters. The operation was scheduled for January 15, 1965. At 5 hours 59 minutes 59 seconds GMT, the morning silence was broken by a deafening explosion. Within 2.5 seconds, the formation of a cloud of hot gases was recorded. After just 5 minutes, it reached a height of 4800 m. 10.3 million tons of soil were thrown into the air, to a height of 950 m. Multi-ton rocks were scattered over a radius of several tens of kilometers. The river bed was blocked.

A giant crater with melted edges was left at the explosion site. Its diameter is 430 m, its depth exceeded 100 m. In his diaries, Turchin wrote that he had never seen a more beautiful sight.

Super Power Bomb

The explosive device used to create such a facility as the Chagan atomic lake had a yield of 170 kilotons. For comparison, a 20 kiloton bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. All this power was contained in a cylindrical container with a diameter of 86 cm and a length of 3 m!

Already in the spring, equipment arrived at the scene of the explosion to connect the river with a new reservoir. Scientists realized that flood waters could carry radioactive dust from the entire region into the Irtysh and thus contaminate the entire Siberian region. According to scientists, all the water should be collected in Lake Chagan. For this purpose, a dam was built, which did not allow the river water to reach the Irtysh. In the spring, the funnel was filled with melt water, but the artificial reservoir did not turn out to be a watering hole - the radiation level exceeded the norm by thousands of times. Lake Chagan in Kazakhstan still exists today. The Chaganka River made a new channel for itself, bypassing the death trap. Residents of the surrounding villages avoid the terrible place, but shepherds still drive their cattle to water. After all, there is nowhere else.

Infestation area

As a result of the explosion, after which the Chagan nuclear lake was formed, a territory in which there were 11 settlements with a population of about 2,000 people was contaminated with radioactive substances. The radiation one day after the test exceeded 30 r/h, and after 10 days it reached 1 r/h. Current measurements show 2000-3000 µR/h, while in the rest of the territory the radiation level is 15-30 µR/h.

182 people who came from different parts of the Union worked on the construction of the canal. Despite the measures taken (the excavator cabins were lined with lead), the radiation caused enormous damage to the health of young healthy men. They all received huge doses of radiation. Each of them ended their work shift as a deeply disabled person. Within a few years, the vast majority of them died from radiation sickness and other ailments.

When, many years later, the liquidators showed a copy of the geoscheme on which the explosion data was marked to geoecology specialist E. Yakovlev, he noted that it was worse than Chernobyl.

Population of the lake

When in 1966 the military and liquidators left the test site where an underground nuclear explosion occurred, Lake Chagan became a place of research for biologists. Since the effect of radiation on living organisms was still poorly understood, biologists conducted experiments populating the nuclear lake with various species of flora and fauna. Often atypical for a given region. At the Atom-Kol biological station, experiments were carried out on the effects of radiation on living organisms. 36 species of fish were released into Lake Chagan, including even piranhas from the Amazon, 27 species of mollusks, 42 species of invertebrates, 32 species of amphibians, 8 mammals, 11 reptiles. In addition, experiments were carried out with 150 types of vegetation, most of which were algae.

90% of the introduced living creatures died due to high levels of radiation and unusual living conditions. The rest were subject to mutations up to a change in the appearance of the offspring and a radical transformation of behavior. Thus, carp, which under normal conditions are herbivorous fish, brought into the nuclear lake Chagan (Kazakhstan), became active predators. Here they grow to almost a meter. But eating them is strictly not recommended.

A common crayfish is about the same size as an oceanic yellow lobster. In the natural environment, different species of living creatures were crossed, producing common offspring. Some animal species have mutated so that their descendants are neither like their ancestors nor like each other.

Scientists noted that even herbivorous fish became predators under radiation conditions. In 1974, the research station was closed.

Similar object

Lake Chagan is an echo of Soviet nuclear tests. After its formation, the leadership refused to repeat such experiments. Although it was initially planned to create a whole network of similar reservoirs. But this experiment is not the only one in the world. In the USA, in Nevada, there is the Sedan crater, which was also formed as a result of an explosion.

But Soviet scientists managed to increase the useful power of the explosion and minimize the harmful impact on the environment. Although even with such “achievements,” colossal damage was caused to the region.

Chagan today

Now the territory of the Semipalatinsk test site, including Lake Chagan, is included in the list of areas particularly affected by nuclear tests. Radioactive contamination of water is 300 picocuries/l (with an acceptable level of 15 picocuries/l). This water is not suitable for drinking or irrigating fields. But herders bring their cattle to water. The level of cancer and genetic disorders in the region is much higher than in neighboring ones.

Fish caught in Lake Chagan is not recommended for consumption. But clever businessmen offer giant carp in the markets of Semipalatinsk to buyers who happen to be passing through and do not know about the wonderful lake. The scientists' calculations did not come true. This is a lake with dead water; even after half a century it is unsuitable for human life. Tourists are brought here to talk about the achievements of nuclear technology in the USSR.

Man-made miracle

Lake Chagan in Kazakhstan is the work of Soviet nuclear scientists. They proposed to purposefully create artificial reservoirs for storing water in arid regions. As planned by scientists, at least forty similar lakes should have appeared in Central Asia. In this way, it was planned to solve the problem of summer drought and optimize agriculture in the Kazakh steppes. This is how Chagan appeared, with a capacity of 20 million cubic meters. m of water.

Time for great achievements

First explosion

According to the scientists' idea, the explosion should have formed a giant crater, the edges and bottom of which would have melted from the high temperature. Water from such a reservoir will not seep into the ground, and local residents will be able to use it to water livestock and irrigate surrounding fields.

A targeted explosion was carried out in the area of the small river Chagan, which dries up in the summer. The project was led by nuclear scientist Ivan Turchin.

Powerful explosion

A giant crater with melted edges was left at the explosion site. Its diameter is 430 m, its depth exceeded 100 m. In his diaries, Turchin wrote that he had never seen a more beautiful sight.

Super Power Bomb

Lake

In the spring, the funnel was filled with melt water, but the artificial reservoir did not turn out to be a watering hole - the radiation level exceeded the norm by thousands of times.

Lake Chagan in Kazakhstan still exists today. The Chaganka River made a new channel for itself, bypassing the death trap. Residents of the surrounding villages avoid the terrible place, but shepherds still drive their cattle to water. After all, there is nowhere else.

Infestation area

The radiation one day after the test exceeded 30 r/h, and after 10 days it reached 1 r/h. Current measurements show 2000-3000 µR/h, while in the rest of the territory the radiation level is 15-30 µR/h.

When, many years later, the liquidators showed a copy of the geoscheme on which the explosion data was marked to geoecology specialist E. Yakovlev, he noted that it was worse than Chernobyl.

Population of the lake

Scientists noted that even herbivorous fish became predators under radiation conditions. In 1974, the research station was closed.

Chagan today

Now the territory of the Semipalatinsk test site, including Lake Chagan, is included in the list of areas particularly affected by nuclear tests. water is 300 picocuries/l (with the permissible value being 15 picocuries/l). This water is not suitable for drinking or irrigating fields. But herders bring their cattle to water. The level of cancer and genetic disorders in the region is much higher than in neighboring ones.

The scientists' calculations did not come true. This is a lake with dead water; even after half a century it is unsuitable for human life. Tourists are brought here to talk about the achievements of nuclear technology in the USSR.

January 15, 1965. The Chaganka River is a hundred kilometers from Semipalatinsk. Early in the morning the earth swayed sharply and reared up. A 170-kiloton nuclear charge planted deep inside - nine Hiroshimas - tore up the earth. Boulders weighing about a ton were scattered over eight kilometers. A dust cloud obscured the horizon for several days. At night the sky glowed with a crimson glow. At the site of the explosion, a crater with a diameter of about five hundred and a depth of up to one hundred meters with melted obsidian edges was formed. The size of the pile of rock around the funnel reached forty meters.

In the official report, which was declassified quite recently, we read: “Immediately after the explosion, a dome of crushed soil began to rise. 2-5 seconds after the explosion, a breakthrough of hot gases was noted and the formation of a cloud began, which stabilized after five minutes at an altitude of 4800 m. The crushed part of the soil, having reached a maximum height of 950 m, began to descend... After conducting an underground test under code With the name “Chagan”, the territory of 11 settlements with a total population of 2000 people was exposed to radioactive contamination...”

The level of gamma radiation at the edges of the crater by the end of the first day was 30 roentgens per hour, after 10 days it dropped to 1 roentgen/hour, and currently amounts to 2000-3000 µR/hour (the natural radioactive background of this area is 15-30 µR/hour hour). This is how the “Peaceful Atom” program began in the Soviet Union.

The “Peaceful Atom” in the Soviet Union was a kind of fixed idea. Projects of giant planes, ships, trains and even cars with nuclear engines, space “explosive planes” and other devices using nuclear energy were seriously developed. The enthusiasm of nuclear scientists knew no bounds. Physicists proposed using nuclear explosions in the construction of canals and harbors, stripping operations, digging pits, to intensify oil and gas production, the construction of underground water storage tanks, waste disposal and many other purposes.

In March 1962, Minister of Medium Engineering E.P. Slavsky received a report from nuclear physicists Yuri Babaev and Yuri Trutnev “On the need to expand work to study the possibilities of using atomic and thermonuclear explosions for technical and scientific purposes.” Each point of the program was described in detail and made a very realistic impression. Slavsky enthusiastically supported Trutnev and Babaev's report, and in 1962 a large-scale program of "peaceful atomic explosions" was launched in the Soviet Union. More than a dozen ministries were involved in it: the Ministry of Medium Machinery, Mingazprom, the Ministry of Oil Industry, the Ministry of Coal Industry, the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Tsvetmet, the Ministry of Water Resources and others, on whose orders the explosions were carried out. “Peaceful Atom” burst.

The first Soviet industrial nuclear explosion occurred on January 15, 1965 in Kazakhstan, in the Semipalatinsk region. It was necessary to create a giant funnel and fill it with the waters of the Chagan River. According to the plan of Soviet scientists, such funnels were soon to cover the entire territory of the arid Central Asian regions. Specifically for Kazakhstan, it was necessary to create about forty reservoirs with a total volume of 120-140 million cubic meters. Spring runoff would be accumulated in giant funnels, and a relatively small evaporation surface and a glassy bottom of the reservoir would allow water to be saved for the needs of irrigation, cattle breeding, to prevent salinization of territories, etc.

The technology for creating reservoirs in river floodplains was as follows: a deep crater was created using a nuclear explosion for release. Then a canal was laid connecting the river bed with the funnel. This is what happened during the explosion near the Chaganka River. Secret nuclear scientist Ivan Turchin was appointed head of the work. At the beginning of 1965, the river bed was connected to the funnel by a canal, and later a stone-earth dam with culverts was built. In general, a reservoir with a total capacity of 17 million cubic meters of water was formed.

In total, 124 nuclear explosions were carried out in the USSR while carrying out the Peaceful Atom program. Soviet newspapers wrote:

“As a result, the beautiful Chagan Lake with clean, clear water was created. The area has changed. On the shore we found large transparent crystals of gypsum, which were opened by an explosion.”

“...The event that has been awaited for so long has happened. It was the usual heat for these places. People were languishing. True, it was a little cooler on the shore, but how this serene water surface beckoned! Truly, the elbow is close, but you won’t bite... Not yet. Finally, the doctors gave the go-ahead, and all the inhabitants of the village ran to the beach. We swam for a long time, with all our hearts..."

Efim Pavlovich Slavsky was proud of this creation of human genius. He commissioned a color film to be made for wide release. Film stills: a speedboat rushes across the blue expanse of the Chagan nuclear lake...

Scientists understood that if flood waters carried radioactive dust scattered over a large area into the Irtysh River, the huge Siberian waterway would be contaminated for a long time, which would cause irreparable damage. Back in January, a decision was made: to cut a canal in the wall of the crater and block the bed of the Chaganka River with an earthen dam in order to prevent deadly water from flowing into the Irtysh and create a lake in the crater.

One of the few surviving participants of that expedition, Vladimir Vasilyevich Zhirov, a foreman in the “mailbox” at that time, tells the story: “I was 23 years old. The strength seemed to have nowhere to go. Neither I nor the others thought that the production task of that fierce winter would be fatal for us. This is how we were brought up: the party ordered it, which means we have to go. We quickly collected equipment and put together booths for temporary housing. In January they moved from Ust-Kamenogorsk to Semipalatinsk, and from there to the site of the explosion.

The boardwalk residential town is located about five kilometers from the epicenter. The booths had an iron stove-stove, but the forty-degree frosts took their toll. The place of the explosion is monstrous, this is the fear of God. I walked there - blood gushed out of my nose, and my throat felt like sandpaper. I pulled the “petal” from my face, my clothes are covered in blood, I’m suffocating, but I have to go. They worked honestly and did not spare themselves. One bulldozer driver, saving a car, dived with a cable into atomic water. The bulldozer saved him, but he himself died a short time later. “I came out of the ashes with chronic rewards - nosebleeds, pancreatic disease, bronchitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis... Of the three hundred liquidators, less than thirty people remained alive.”

“Everything is like this with us,” another participant, Viktor Efimovich Bogomolov, a surveyor, enters the conversation, “experienced and knowledgeable military topographers, of whom hardly any survived, warned: with your health, men, you can say goodbye, but your Motherland will not will forget."

The liquidators accidentally kept a copy of the geoscheme, where it was written in red and black and white: “Funnel-crater formed as a result of a ground-based atomic explosion T"Ch/r. Chagan, Semipalatinsk region.” This document was presented to geoecology specialist Professor Evgeniy Yakovlev, he shook his head and said: “It was worse there than in Chernobyl.”...

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.N. Mikhailov in his book “I am a Hawk” writes: “The diameter of the crater was about five hundred meters, the depth was one hundred meters, and the height of the parapet soil pile reached forty meters. This was our first nuclear explosion for peaceful purposes to create a fresh water reservoir. The explosion was carried out in the bed of the Chagan River, which usually dries up in the summer. It was believed that in the spring, when the snow was actively melting, the funnel would be filled with water, which would be enough for the entire dry summer in these places to water the animals of neighboring state farms. And so it happened: in the spring the funnel filled with water, and in front of the parapet a large lake one or two meters deep formed, filling about two square kilometers of steppe area. True, this flooded area dried up in the summer, and there was no watering hole from the artificial funnel due to the relatively high radiation in it. This is how this lake stands today, terrifying the residents of neighboring villages. And the Chaganka River has found a new channel and flows in the spring, like hundreds - thousands of years ago, bending around the creation of human hands.

The next year after the explosion, in the spring, we came to fish in the flood waters and to look at our miracle. And the miracle lake made an eerie impression, and not from the radiation, which was still quite large on the parapet of the lake, but from the blackness of the water surface and the lifeless, gloomy pile of soil around it - blocks of the insides of the earth turned inside out. We settled down near the lake, caught tench with a drag, cooked fish soup and looked at Atom-Kul for a long time, as the locals call Atomic Lake. No, that’s not the point: even if there can be a peaceful use of nuclear explosions, then it won’t be in populated areas.”

I will add on my own behalf. If you ever happen to get to Semipalatinsk, at the bazaar you will definitely meet sellers with meter-long carp. Don’t rush to rejoice, local residents avoid them. Carp, similar to sharks, are found there in only one place - on Atomic Lake.

Materials used:

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. N. Mikhailov, chapter “Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site” from the book “I am a Hawk”

Elena Rakitina, East Kazakhstan region, Express-K

Leo Hermann. The truth about the great lie. Volume 2. St. Petersburg, 1999.

Brish A.A., “Patriarch of Minatom” - about the Minister of Medium Engineering E.P. Slavsk